{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T18:26:56Z","timestamp":1787164016402,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,28]],"date-time":"2023-10-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1698451200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Introduction: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that interferes with multiple aspects of daily functioning and is associated with impairments in several domains. It may affect academic, educational, vocational, social, emotional, interpersonal, and health domains, and worsen risks to health outcomes. Objective: To identify and discuss medical conditions that commonly present with symptoms resembling ADHD. Method: This review is selective and not systematic. It is conducted through a focused literature search through PubMed, Google Scholar, and EMBASE. Search term included \u201cADHD misdiagnosis\u201d, \u201cmedical conditions with ADHD like symptoms\u201d, \u201cADHD AND medical problems\u201d. Exclusion: giftedness, high IQ, and any article that does not list medical conditions. The limits applied were the following: the work must have been published in the past 20 years, be on humans, and be in the English language. Results: There are several medical conditions that can be misdiagnosed as ADHD and may show a similar presentation to ADHD, particularly with inattentive symptoms. Examples include, but are not limited to, absence seizure disorder, diabetes, thyroid dysfunction, sleep deprivation, post-concussion states, inflammatory bowel disease, iron deficiency states and anemia, and disordered breathing. Conclusions: Our review suggests that a thorough medical evaluation should be conducted prior to the diagnosis of ADHD. Allied health professionals and psychologists who diagnose ADHD should seek medical clearance from a physician prior to making the ADHD diagnosis in order to reduce misdiagnosis rates and improve patient outcomes. ADHD diagnosis should follow guidelines and be carried out under a systematic standardized approach. A full medical evaluation should be conducted to assess for medical conditions that may look like ADHD or be associated with ADHD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13111522","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,30]],"date-time":"2023-10-30T09:27:28Z","timestamp":1698658048000},"page":"1522","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Misdiagnosis: Why Medical Evaluation Should Be a Part of ADHD Assessment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7234-1814","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joseph","family":"Sadek","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H4K3, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2013). Diagnostic and Stastical Manuel of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Publishing Inc.. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2018). Interna\u021bional Classification of Diseases, World Health Organization. 11th Revision."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"991","DOI":"10.1037\/a0027347","article-title":"Validity of DSM-IV Attention Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder Symptom Dimensions and Subtypes","volume":"121","author":"Willcutt","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2011.07.018","article-title":"The size and burden of mental disorders and other disorders of the brain in Europe 2010","volume":"21","author":"Wittchen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(10)62227-1","article-title":"Effects of a restricted elimination diet on the behaviour of children with attention-defi cit hyperactivity disorder (INCA study): A randomised controlled trial","volume":"377","author":"Pelsser","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1093\/jpepsy\/jsm005","article-title":"Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis, Lifespan, Comorbidities, and Neurobiology","volume":"32","author":"Spencer","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1002\/ddrr.38","article-title":"ADHD in college students: Developmental fi ndings","volume":"14","author":"Weyandt","year":"2008","journal-title":"Dev. Disabil. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1017\/S003329170500471X","article-title":"The Age-Dependent Decline of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Meta-Analysis of Follow-Up Studies","volume":"36","author":"Faraone","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sadek, J. (2014). Clinician\u2019s Guide to ADHD, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-02359-5"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1024\/1422-4917\/a000155","article-title":"Intelligenzminderung und ADHS [Mental retardation and ADHD]","volume":"40","author":"Thome","year":"2012","journal-title":"Z. Kinder Jugendpsychiatr. Psychother."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108513","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2021.108513","article-title":"Sleep disorders and ADHD symptoms in children and adolescents with typical absence seizures: An observational study","volume":"128","author":"Thieux","year":"2022","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1607","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200504143521521","article-title":"Attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder","volume":"352","author":"Selman","year":"2005","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yebeh.2007.03.016","article-title":"Evaluation of sleep habits in children with epilepsy","volume":"11","author":"Batista","year":"2007","journal-title":"Epilepsy Behav."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1586\/ern.11.7","article-title":"Sleep disturbances in children with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"11","author":"Spruyt","year":"2011","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Neurother."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sleep.2018.08.026","article-title":"Sleep phenotypes in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"60","author":"Miano","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sleep Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12402-014-0151-0","article-title":"Associations of sleep disturbance with ADHD: Implications for treatment","volume":"7","author":"Hvolby","year":"2015","journal-title":"ADHD Atten. Deficit Hyperact. Disord."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2019.09.006","article-title":"ADHD and sleep: Recent advances and future directions","volume":"34","author":"Becker","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wneu.2019.12.162","article-title":"Application of hydrogen proton magnetic resonance technology combined with brain neurometabolite analysis in the treatment of cognitive impairment caused by type 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"138","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"World Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1695","DOI":"10.2174\/1381612823666170317165350","article-title":"Diabetes-related neurological implications and pharmacogenomics","volume":"24","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1655","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.116.015753","article-title":"Hyperbaric oxygen reduces infarction volume and hemorrhagic transformation through ATP\/NAD(+)\/Sirt1 pathway in hyperglycemic middle cerebral artery occlusion rats","volume":"48","author":"Hu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1492","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2014.06.002","article-title":"The TOMM40 poly-T rs10524523 variant is associated with cognitive performance among non-demented elderly with type 2 diabetes","volume":"24","author":"Greenbaum","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1111\/pedi.12414","article-title":"A longitudinal investigation of cognitive function in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus","volume":"18","author":"Kirchhoff","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pediatr. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"668","DOI":"10.1111\/dme.12854","article-title":"Academic abilities and glycaemic control in children and young people with Type 1 diabetes mellitus","volume":"33","author":"Semenkovich","year":"2016","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-5448.2007.00274.x","article-title":"Effects of prior hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia on cognition in children with type 1 diabetes mellitus","volume":"9","author":"Perantie","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pediatr. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1177\/0300060513483417","article-title":"Impact of type 1 diabetes mellitus on academic performance","volume":"41","author":"Meo","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Int. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.2467","article-title":"Impaired sustained attention in adult patients with type 1 diabetes is related to diabetes per se","volume":"30","author":"Donga","year":"2014","journal-title":"Diabetes Metab. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1800","DOI":"10.2337\/db05-1226","article-title":"Cognitive performance, psychological well-being, and brain magnetic resonance imaging in older patients with type 1 diabetes","volume":"55","author":"Brands","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"878","DOI":"10.1001\/archgenpsychiatry.2009.86","article-title":"Altered prefrontal glutamate-glutamine-gammaaminobutyric acid levels and relation to low cognitive performance and depressive symptoms in type 1 diabetes mellitus","volume":"66","author":"Lyoo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1111\/pedi.12314","article-title":"Clinical presentation and memory function in youth with type 1 diabetes","volume":"17","author":"Semenkovich","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pediatr. Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1933","DOI":"10.2337\/dc08-0607","article-title":"Impact of diabetes and its treatment on cognitive function among adolescents who participated in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial","volume":"31","author":"Musen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617715001289","article-title":"Longitudinal Evaluation of Cognitive Functioning in Young Children with Type 1 Diabetes over 18 Months","volume":"22","author":"Cato","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3978428","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/3978428","article-title":"Brain Activation during memory encoding in type 2 diabetes mellitus: A discordant twin pair study","volume":"2016","author":"Wood","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936813","DOI":"10.3389\/fped.2022.936813","article-title":"The relationship between diabetes mellitus and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"10","author":"Ai","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000001820","article-title":"Inflammation-associated declines in cerebral vasoreactivity and cognition in type 2 diabetes","volume":"85","author":"Chung","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1111\/jdi.12865","article-title":"Serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol is a protective predictor of executive function in older patients with diabetes mellitus","volume":"10","author":"Sun","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Investig."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"736","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-014-3487-2","article-title":"Haptoglobin genotype modulates the relationships of glycaemic control with cognitive function in elderly individuals with type 2 diabetes","volume":"58","author":"Heymann","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1080\/15622975.2017.1366055","article-title":"The CADM2 gene is associated with processing speed performance\u2014Evidence among elderly with type 2 diabetes","volume":"20","author":"Greenbaum","year":"2019","journal-title":"World J. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3438","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2012-2284","article-title":"Clinical review: The thyroid in mind: Cognitive function and low thyrotropin in older people","volume":"97","author":"Gan","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1002\/gps.3796","article-title":"Subclinical hypothyroidism, mood, and cognition in older adults: A review","volume":"28","author":"Joffe","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1097\/MED.0000000000000089","article-title":"Psychiatric and cognitive manifestations of hypothyroidism","volume":"21","author":"Samuels","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"49","article-title":"Neuropsychiatric aspects of hypothyroidism and treatment reversibility","volume":"32","author":"Davis","year":"2007","journal-title":"Minerva Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617705050642","article-title":"Anxiety and depression, attention, and executive functions in hypothyroidism","volume":"11","author":"Constant","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0447.2002.01250.x","article-title":"An association between depression, anxiety and thyroid function: A clinical fact or an artefact?","volume":"106","author":"Engum","year":"2002","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr. Scand."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3789","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2008-2702","article-title":"Evidence for a specific defect in hippocampal memory in overt and subclinical hypothyroidism","volume":"94","author":"Correia","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1176\/jnp.2007.19.2.132","article-title":"Verbal memory retrieval deficits associated with untreated hypothyroidism","volume":"19","author":"Miller","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.1080\/01688639308402598","article-title":"Memory, mood and measurement in hypothyroidism","volume":"15","author":"Mennemeier","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.1992.tb02130.x","article-title":"Cognitive function in nondemented older adults with hypothyroidism","volume":"40","author":"Osterweil","year":"1992","journal-title":"Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0404.1997.tb00216.x","article-title":"Cerebrospinal fluid proteins in subclinical and overt hypothyroidism","volume":"95","author":"Hamberger","year":"1997","journal-title":"Acta Neurol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1080\/00207450600550154","article-title":"Memory improvement with treatment of hypothyroidism","volume":"116","author":"Miller","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2014.01.007","article-title":"Hashimoto thyroiditis: Clinical and diagnostic criteria","volume":"13","author":"Caturegli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1309","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2009-1794","article-title":"Distinct clinical, serological, and sonographic characteristics of Hashimoto\u2019s thyroiditis based with and without IgG4-positive plasma cells","volume":"95","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1086","DOI":"10.1038\/modpathol.2012.68","article-title":"Distinct histopathological features of Hashimoto\u2019s thyroiditis with respect to IgG4-related disease","volume":"25","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mod. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J., Zhang, J., Xu, L., Shi, Y., Wu, X., and Guo, Q. (2013). Cognitive impairments in Hashimoto\u2019s encephalopathy: A case\u2013control study. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0055758"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1199","DOI":"10.1515\/JPEM.2007.20.11.1199","article-title":"Hashimoto\u2019s thyroiditis in children and adolescents: A retrospective study on clinical, epidemiological and laboratory properties of the disease","volume":"20","author":"Demirbilek","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(75)80350-7","article-title":"Occurrence and natural history of chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis in childhood","volume":"86","author":"Rallison","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1159\/000343815","article-title":"Thyroid function patterns at Hashimoto\u2019s thyroiditis presentation in childhood and adolescence are mainly conditioned by patients\u2019 age","volume":"78","author":"Wasniewska","year":"2012","journal-title":"Horm. Res. Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bvab194","DOI":"10.1210\/jendso\/bvab194","article-title":"Pathophysiology and Clinical Features of Neuropsychiatric Manifestations of Thyroid Disease","volume":"6","author":"Warda","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Endocr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1518\/001872008X312152","article-title":"Vigilance requires hard mental work and is stressful","volume":"50","author":"Warm","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-019-0432-6","article-title":"Sleep deprivation, vigilant attention, and brain function: A review","volume":"45","author":"Hudson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1038\/s41390-019-0280-4","article-title":"Early sleep deprivation and attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"85","author":"Tso","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0029-1237117","article-title":"Neurocognitive consequences of sleep deprivation","volume":"29","author":"Goel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Semin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054712457992","article-title":"Future research directions in sleep and ADHD: Report of a consensus working group","volume":"17","author":"Owens","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Atten. Disord."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaac.2013.06.001","article-title":"Assessment and management of sleep problems in youths with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"52","author":"Cortese","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-008-0070-x","article-title":"Sleep disorders and attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"10","author":"Owens","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pcl.2011.03.002","article-title":"Cognitive, behavioral, and functional consequences of inadequate sleep in children and adolescents","volume":"58","author":"Beebe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pediatr. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/34.3.315","article-title":"Impact of sleep restriction on neurobehavioral functioning of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"34","author":"Gruber","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18r12210","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.18r12210","article-title":"Sleep-Associated Adverse Events During Methylphenidate Treatment of Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"80","author":"Faraone","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.11m06838","article-title":"Impact of stimulant pharmacotherapy on sleep quality: Post hoc analyses of 2 large, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials","volume":"72","author":"Surman","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1007\/s11920-016-0711-4","article-title":"Sleep Problems in Children with Attention Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder: Current Status of Knowledge and Appropriate Management","volume":"18","author":"Tsai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Subcommittee on Attention-Deficit\/hyperactivity Steering Committee on Quality Improvement, and Management Subcommittee on Attention-Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder (2011). ADHD: Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Pediatrics, 128, 1007\u20131022.","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2011-2654"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e857","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2008-2164","article-title":"Short sleep duration and behavioral symptoms of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder in healthy 7- to 8-year-old children","volume":"123","author":"Paavonen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1007\/s12529-009-9065-1","article-title":"Sleep duration and regularity are associated with behavioral problems in 8-year-old children","volume":"17","author":"Pesonen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Behav. Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1155","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2012-0564","article-title":"Impact of sleep extension and restriction on children\u2019s emotional lability and impulsivity","volume":"130","author":"Gruber","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"1093","article-title":"Sleep-Disordered Breathing","volume":"23","author":"Waters","year":"2017","journal-title":"Continuum"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1115","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/29.9.1115","article-title":"Neurobehavioral morbidity associated with disordered breathing during sleep in children: A comprehensive review","volume":"29","author":"Beebe","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.11-2456","article-title":"Esophageal pressures, polysomnography, and neurobehavioral outcomes of adenotonsillectomy in children","volume":"142","author":"Chervin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.20981","article-title":"Neurocognitive and behavioral impact of sleep disordered breathing in children","volume":"44","author":"Owens","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smrv.2013.12.003","article-title":"Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and sleep disordered breathing in pediatric populations: A meta-analysis","volume":"18","author":"Sedky","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sleep Med. Rev."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"213","article-title":"Is obstructive sleep apnea associated with ADHD?","volume":"23","author":"Youssef","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Psychiatry"}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/13\/11\/1522\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:13:16Z","timestamp":1760130796000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/13\/11\/1522"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,28]]},"references-count":79,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci13111522"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci13111522","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,10,28]]}}}