{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T05:54:49Z","timestamp":1792648489960,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,12]],"date-time":"2023-12-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1702339200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000274","name":"British Heart Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PG\/21\/10559"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PG\/21\/10559"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000274","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is an important health issue for the worldwide population, as it causes long-term pathological consequences for a diverse group of individuals. We are yet to fully elucidate the significance of TBI polypathologies, such as neuroinflammation and tau hyperphosphorylation, and their contribution to the development of chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) and other neurological conditions. To advance our understanding of TBI, it is necessary to replicate TBI in preclinical models. Commonly used animal models include the weight drop model; these methods model human TBI in various ways and in different animal species. However, animal models have not demonstrated their clinical utility for identifying therapeutic interventions. Many interventions that were successful in improving outcomes for animal models did not translate into clinical benefit for patients. It is important to review current animal models and discuss their strengths and limitations within a TBI context. Modelling human TBI in animals encounters numerous challenges, yet despite these barriers, the TBI research community is working to overcome these difficulties. Developments include advances in biomarkers, standardising, and refining existing models. This progress will improve our ability to model TBI in animals and, therefore, enhance our understanding of TBI and, potentially, how to treat it.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13121709","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,12]],"date-time":"2023-12-12T04:28:31Z","timestamp":1702355311000},"page":"1709","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Polypathologies and Animal Models of Traumatic Brain Injury"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Erin","family":"Freeman-Jones","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"William H.","family":"Miller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Medicine, Dentistry and Nursing, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lorraine M.","family":"Work","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Cardiovascular & Metabolic Health, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1967-9522","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Josie L.","family":"Fullerton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Cardiovascular & Metabolic Health, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,12,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"987","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(17)30371-X","article-title":"Traumatic Brain Injury: Integrated Approaches to Improve Prevention, Clinical Care, and Research","volume":"16","author":"Maas","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"134ra60","article-title":"Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in Blast-Exposed Military Veterans and a Blast Neurotrauma Mouse Model","volume":"4","author":"Goldstein","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. 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