{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,6]],"date-time":"2026-03-06T04:36:52Z","timestamp":1772771812765,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":137,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,4]],"date-time":"2024-03-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1709510400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Regional Governor of Attica","award":["16092"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["16092"]}]},{"name":"Regional Governor of Attica","award":["34430\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["34430\/2020"]}]},{"name":"Athanasios &amp; Marina Martinou Foundation (AMMF)-nonprofit civil company AEGEAS","award":["16092"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["16092"]}]},{"name":"Athanasios &amp; Marina Martinou Foundation (AMMF)-nonprofit civil company AEGEAS","award":["34430\/2020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["34430\/2020"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Anorexia nervosa is associated with impaired cognitive flexibility and central coherence, i.e., the ability to provide an overview of complex information. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to evaluate EEG features elicited from patients with anorexia nervosa and healthy controls during mental tasks (valid and invalid Aristotelian syllogisms and paradoxes). Particularly, we examined the combination of the most significant syllogisms with selected features (relative power of the time\u2013frequency domain and wavelet-estimated EEG-specific waves, Higuchi fractal dimension (HFD), and information-oriented approximate entropy (AppEn)). We found that alpha, beta, gamma, theta waves, and AppEn are the most suitable measures, which, when combined with specific syllogisms, form a powerful tool for efficiently classifying healthy subjects and patients with AN. We assessed the performance of triadic combinations of \u201cfeature\u2013classifier\u2013syllogism\u201d via machine learning techniques in correctly classifying new subjects in these two groups. The following triads attain the best classifications: (a) \u201cAppEn-invalid-ensemble BT classifier\u201d (accuracy 83.3%), (b) \u201cHiguchi FD-valid-linear discriminant\u201d (accuracy 75%), (c) \u201calpha amplitude-valid-SVM\u201d (accuracy 83.3%), (d) \u201calpha RP-paradox-ensemble BT\u201d (accuracy 85%), (e) \u201cbeta RP-valid-ensemble\u201d (accuracy 85%), (f) \u201cgamma RP-valid-SVM\u201d (accuracy 85%), and (g) \u201ctheta RP-valid-KNN\u201d (accuracy 80%). Our findings suggest that anorexia nervosa has a specific information-processing style across reasoning tasks in the brain as measured via EEG activity. Our findings also contribute to further supporting the view that entropy-oriented, i.e., information-based features (the AppEn measure used in this study) are promising diagnostic tools (biomarkers) in clinical applications related to medical classification problems. Furthermore, the main EEG-specific frequency waves are extremely enhanced and become powerful classification tools when combined with Aristotle\u2019s syllogisms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci14030251","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,4]],"date-time":"2024-03-04T10:11:57Z","timestamp":1709547117000},"page":"251","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Using Electroencephalogram-Extracted Nonlinear Complexity and Wavelet-Extracted Power Rhythm Features during the Performance of Demanding Cognitive Tasks (Aristotle\u2019s Syllogisms) in Optimally Classifying Patients with Anorexia Nervosa"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Anna","family":"Karavia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Eating Disorder Unit, 2nd Department of Psychiatry, Medical School, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, \u2018Attikon\u2019 University Hospital, 1 Rimini St., 12462 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Anastasia","family":"Papaioannou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Department of Psychiatry, Medical School, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Eginition Hospital, 74 Vas. Sofias Ave., 11528 Athens, Greece"},{"name":"Neurosciences and Precision Medicine Research Institute \u201cCOSTAS STEFANIS\u201d (UMHRI), University Mental Health, Soranou tou Efesiou 2, Papagou, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ioannis","family":"Michopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Eating Disorder Unit, 2nd Department of Psychiatry, Medical School, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, \u2018Attikon\u2019 University Hospital, 1 Rimini St., 12462 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5461-3676","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Panos C.","family":"Papageorgiou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Patras, 26504 Rion-Patras, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"George","family":"Papaioannou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Research of Nonlinear Systems (CRANS), Department of Mathematics, University of Patras, 26500 Rion-Patras, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8212-280X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fragiskos","family":"Gonidakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Department of Psychiatry, Medical School, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Eginition Hospital, 74 Vas. Sofias Ave., 11528 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Charalabos C.","family":"Papageorgiou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Department of Psychiatry, Medical School, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Eginition Hospital, 74 Vas. Sofias Ave., 11528 Athens, Greece"},{"name":"Neurosciences and Precision Medicine Research Institute \u201cCOSTAS STEFANIS\u201d (UMHRI), University Mental Health, Soranou tou Efesiou 2, Papagou, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0168067","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0168067","article-title":"Aristotle Meets Zeno: Psychophysiological Evidence","volume":"11","author":"Papageorgiou","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1459","DOI":"10.1002\/wcs.1459","article-title":"Inductive reasoning 2.0","volume":"9","author":"Hayes","year":"2018","journal-title":"WIREs Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"920","DOI":"10.3758\/s13421-020-01027-3","article-title":"Reasoning strategies and semantic memory effects in deductive reasoning","volume":"48","author":"Brisson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.119.1.3","article-title":"The empirical case for two systems of reasoning","volume":"119","author":"Sloman","year":"1996","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103322","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2021.103322","article-title":"Recognizing biased reasoning: Conflict detection during decision-making and decision-evaluation","volume":"217","author":"Janssen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Psychol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1007\/s10936-011-9181-3","article-title":"The interference of introversion-extraversion and depressive symptomatology with reasoning performance: A behavioural study","volume":"41","author":"Papageorgiou","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Psycholinguist. Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14274","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.14274","article-title":"Evaluating EEG complexity metrics as biomarkers for depression","volume":"60","author":"Lord","year":"2023","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0277(84)90035-0","article-title":"Syllogistic inference","volume":"16","author":"Bara","year":"1984","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baddeley, A. (2007). Working Memory, Thought and Action, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780198528012.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2016.09.009","article-title":"Probabilistic representation in syllogistic reasoning: A theory to integrate mental models and heuristics","volume":"157","author":"Hattori","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2007.04.001","article-title":"Separating cognitive capacity from knowledge: A new hypothesis","volume":"11","author":"Halford","year":"2007","journal-title":"Trends Cognit. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Smith, R. (1989). Aristotle\u2019s Prior Analytics, Hacket Publishing Company."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Owen, O.F., Kenyon, F.G., and Peters, F.H. (2015). Aristotle\u2019s Organon, Elsevier. Complete Edition."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.2006.01723.x","article-title":"Dual processing in reasoning: Two systems but one reasoned","volume":"17","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2007.09.003","article-title":"Anatomy of deductive reasoning","volume":"11","author":"Goel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Trends Cognit. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2019.01.048","article-title":"Thinking theta and alpha: Mechanisms of intuitive and analytical reasoning","volume":"189","author":"Williams","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"35","article-title":"Aristotelian vs. Paradoxical Reasoning Elicit Distinct N400 ERPs","volume":"5","author":"Papageorgiou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbe.2015.12.004","article-title":"A new approach for the classification of event related potentials for valid and paradox reasoning","volume":"36","author":"Papaodysseus","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biocybernet. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"850491","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.850491","article-title":"Paradoxical Reasoning: An fMRI Study","volume":"13","author":"Belekou","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Papaioannou, A., Kalantzi, E., Papageorgiou, C., Korombili, K., Bokou, A., Pehlivanidis, A., Papageorgiou, C., and Papaioannou, G. (2021). Differences in Performance of ASD and ADHD Subjects, Facing Cognitive Loads in an Innovative Reasoning Experiment. Brain Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci11111531"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e07984","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2021.e07984","article-title":"Complexity analysis of the brain activity in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) due to cognitive loads\/demands induced by Aristotle\u2019s type of syllogism\/reasoning. A Power Spectral Density and multiscale entropy (MSE) analysis","volume":"7","author":"Papaioannou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Publishing. [5th ed.]. DSM-5.","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5154","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.25602","article-title":"Structural and functional brain alterations in anorexia nervosa: A multimodal meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies","volume":"42","author":"Su","year":"2021","journal-title":"Human Brain Mapping"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1097\/NMD.0000000000000194","article-title":"The impact of comorbid depressive and anxiety disorders on severity of anorexia nervosa in adolescent girls","volume":"202","author":"Leor","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Nerv. Ment. Dis."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.20695","article-title":"In first presentation adolescent anorexia nervosa, do cognitive markers of underweight status change with weight gain following a refeeding intervention?","volume":"43","author":"Hatch","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1080\/10640266.2010.490120","article-title":"Predictors of neuropsychological recovery in treatment for anorexia nervosa","volume":"18","author":"Keifer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychores.2013.10.009","article-title":"Adolescent anorexia nervosa: Cognitive performance after weight recovery","volume":"76","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Psychosom. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.10108","article-title":"Neuropsychological functioning pretreatment and posttreatment in an inpatient eating disorders program","volume":"33","author":"Moser","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1097\/YCO.0000000000000540","article-title":"The Promise of Neurobiological Research in Anorexia Nervosa","volume":"32","author":"Steinglass","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sato, Y., Saito, N., Utsumi, A., Aizawa, E., Shoji, T., Izumiyama, M., Mushiake, H., Hongo, M., and Fukudo, S. (2013). Neural Basis of Impaired Cognitive Flexibility in Patients with Anorexia Nervosa. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0061108"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/s40337-019-0251-5","article-title":"Set-shifting, central coherence and decision-making in individuals recovered from anorexia nervosa: A systematic review","volume":"7","author":"Fuglset","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpsy.2010.07.011","article-title":"Functional neuroimaging in anorexia nervosa: A clinical approach","volume":"26","author":"Pietrini","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-020-0809-7","article-title":"Age influences structural brain restoration during weight gain therapy in anorexia nervosa","volume":"10","author":"Kaufmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transnatl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mallorqu\u00ed-Bagu\u00e9, N., Lozano-Madrid, M., Testa, G., Vintr\u00f3-Alcaraz, C., S\u00e1nchez, I., Riesco, N., Perales, J.C., Navas, J.F., Mart\u00ednez-Zalaca\u00edn, I., and Meg\u00edas, A. (2020). Clinical and Neurophysiological Correlates of Emotion and Food Craving Regulation in Patients with Anorexia Nervosa. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9040960"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1186\/s40337-020-00312-5","article-title":"Evaluation of cognitive function in patients with severe anorexia nervosa before and after medical stabilization","volume":"8","author":"Rylander","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Seidel, M., Brooker, H., Lauenborg, K., Wesnes, K., and Sj\u00f6gren, M. (2021). Cognitive Function in Adults with Enduring Anorexia Nervosa. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13030859"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tenconi, E., Meregalli, V., Buffa, A., Collantoni, E., Cavallaro, R., Meneguzzo, P., and Favaro, A. (2023). Belief Inflexibility and Cognitive Bias in Anorexia Nervosa\u2014The Role of the Bias against Disconfirmatory Evidence and Its Clinical and Neuropsychological Correlates. J. Clin. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm12051746"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2007.07.017","article-title":"Information processing bias in anorexia nervosa","volume":"160","author":"Southgate","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1186\/s40337-022-00547-4","article-title":"Cognitive flexibility, central coherence, and quality of life in anorexia nervosa","volume":"10","author":"Brockmeyer","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pscychresns.2015.11.008","article-title":"Functional connectivity correlates of response inhibition impairment in anorexia nervosa","volume":"247","author":"Collantoni","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res. Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1007\/s40519-018-0558-2","article-title":"Deficits in response inhibition on varied levels of demand load in anorexia nervosa: An event-related potentials study","volume":"25","author":"Yue","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eat. Weight. Disord."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2682","article-title":"New insights into symptoms and neurocircuit function of anorexia nervosa","volume":"10","author":"Kaye","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev.-Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-9384(03)00101-X","article-title":"A neurodevelopmental model for anorexia nervosa","volume":"79","author":"Connan","year":"2003","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1250002","DOI":"10.1142\/S0129065712500025","article-title":"Application of non-linear and wavelet-based features for the automated identification of epileptic EEG signals","volume":"22","author":"Acharya","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Neural Syst."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duke, D.W., and Pritchard, W.S. (1991). Measuring Chaos in the Human Brain, World Scientific.","DOI":"10.1142\/9789814538688"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1177\/107385849600200213","article-title":"Chaos theory and epilepsy","volume":"2","author":"Iasemidis","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neuroscientist"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1109\/TITB.2006.879600","article-title":"Multiclass support vector machines for EEG signals classification","volume":"11","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Technol. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2005.04.011","article-title":"Recurrent neural networks employing Lyapunov exponents for EEG signals classification","volume":"29","year":"2005","journal-title":"Exp. Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1109\/TITB.2006.884369","article-title":"Approximate entropy-based epileptic EEG detection using artificial neural networks","volume":"11","author":"Srinivasan","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Technol. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neunet.2009.07.020","article-title":"Time domain parameters as a feature for EEG-based brain-computer interfaces","volume":"22","author":"Vidaurre","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neural Netw."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-2789(96)00085-1","article-title":"Monitoring changing dynamics with correlation integrals: Case study of an epileptic seizure","volume":"97","author":"Lerner","year":"1996","journal-title":"Phys. D"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-2789(88)90081-4","article-title":"Approach to an irregular time-series on the basis of the fractal theory","volume":"31","author":"Higuchi","year":"1988","journal-title":"Phys. D"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1007\/s004220050394","article-title":"Use of the fractal dimension for the analysis of electroencephalographic time series","volume":"77","author":"Accardo","year":"1997","journal-title":"Biol. Cybern."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Finotello, F., Scarpa, F., and Zanon, M. (2015, January 25\u201329). EEG signal features extraction based on fractal dimension. Proceedings of the 37th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Milan, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2015.7319309"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1061\/TACEAT.0006518","article-title":"Long-term storage of reservoirs: An experimental study","volume":"116","author":"Hurst","year":"1951","journal-title":"Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1007\/s10548-014-0371-9","article-title":"Decoding objects of basic categories from electroencephalographic signals using wavelet transform and support vector machines","volume":"28","author":"Daliri","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain Topograph."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-4694(70)90143-4","article-title":"EEG analysis based on time domain properties","volume":"29","author":"Hjorth","year":"1970","journal-title":"Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaushik, G., Gaur, P., Sharma, R.R., and Pachori, R.B. (2022). EEG signal seizure detection focused on Hjorth parameters from tunable Q-wavelet sub-bands. Biomed. Signal Process. Control, 76.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bspc.2022.103645"},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"226","article-title":"Decreased Sample Entropy to Orthostatic Challenge in Anorexia Nervosa","volume":"6","author":"Jelinek","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Metab. Synd."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1597","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.15969","article-title":"Dynamic changes in the central autonomic network of patients with anorexia nervosa","volume":"57","author":"Schumann","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2006.873543","article-title":"Comparison of Entropy and Complexity Measures for the Assessment of Depth of Sedation","volume":"53","author":"Ferenets","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.4236\/wsn.2010.21010","article-title":"Comparison of Correlation Dimension and Fractal Dimension in Estimating BIS index","volume":"2","author":"Ahmadi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Wirel. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2006.02.003","article-title":"Effects of processoriented worked examples on troubleshooting transfer performance","volume":"16","author":"Paas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Learn. Instruct."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-010-9128-5","article-title":"Element interactivity and intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load","volume":"22","author":"Sweller","year":"2010","journal-title":"Edu. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2067","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chaos.2009.03.148","article-title":"Investigating long-range correlation properties in EEG during complex cognitive tasks","volume":"42","author":"Karkare","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chaos Solitons Fractals"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Amin, H.U., Malik, A.S., Badruddin, N., Kamel, N., and Hussain, M. (2015, January 22\u201324). Effects of Stereoscopic 3D Display Technology on Event-related Potentials (ERPs). Proceedings of the 7th International IEEE EMBS Conference on Neural Engineering, Montpellier, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/NER.2015.7146816"},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"279","article-title":"Why use the S transform?","volume":"Volume 52","author":"Stockwell","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pseudo-Differential Operators: Partial Differential Equations and Time-Frequency Analysis"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1741","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compeleceng.2014.01.010","article-title":"Classification of mental tasks using stockwell transform","volume":"40","author":"Hariharan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput. Elect. Eng."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbe.2014.03.004","article-title":"Selection of an efficient feature space for EEG-based mental task discrimination","volume":"34","author":"Noshadi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biocybern. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1023\/B:NERV.0000028081.40907.de","article-title":"The role of cognitive deficits in the development of eating disorders","volume":"14","author":"Lena","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1590\/S1516-44462004000200008","article-title":"Neuropsychology of eating disorders: A systematic review of the literature","volume":"26","author":"Duchesne","year":"2004","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-843X.103.1.137","article-title":"Personality variables and disorders in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa","volume":"103","author":"Vitousek","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.53.100901.135103","article-title":"Causes of eating disorders","volume":"53","author":"Polivy","year":"2002","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3365","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291714000294","article-title":"Set-shifting ability across the spectrum of eating disorders and in overweight and obesity: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"44","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.3109\/15622975.2014.909606","article-title":"Central coherence in eating disorders: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"15","author":"Lang","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1393","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291708003486","article-title":"Central coherence in eating disorders: A systematic review","volume":"38","author":"Lopez","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-440X(84)90010-5","article-title":"Electrophysiologic abnormalities in patients with eating disorders","volume":"25","author":"Grebb","year":"1984","journal-title":"Compr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1149","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.114.514.1149","article-title":"A controlled study of the EEG in anorexia nervosa","volume":"114","author":"Crisp","year":"1968","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1213","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2007.02.022","article-title":"Cortical sources of awake scalp EEG in eating disorders","volume":"118","author":"Rodriguez","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1002\/eat.20777","article-title":"EEG in adolescent anorexia nervosa: Impact of refeeding and weight gain","volume":"44","author":"Hatch","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2003.11.001","article-title":"Effects of sweet and bitter gustatory stimuli in anorexia nervosa on EEG frequency spectra","volume":"52","author":"Toth","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychophysiol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2419","DOI":"10.2147\/NDT.S113586","article-title":"Increased frontal electroencephalogram theta amplitude in patients with anorexia nervosa compared to healthy controls","volume":"12","author":"Hestad","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1617","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.2012.01471.x","article-title":"How about taking a low-cost, small, and wireless EEG for a walk?","volume":"49","author":"Debener","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7247514","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/7247514","article-title":"Brain Oscillations Elicited by the Cold Pressor Test: A Putative Index of Untreated Essential Hypertension","volume":"2017","author":"Papageorgiou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Hypertens."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2003.10.009","article-title":"EEGLAB: An open-source toolbox for analysis of single-trial EEG dynamics including independent component analysis","volume":"134","author":"Delorme","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1186\/1744-9081-7-30","article-title":"Automatic Classification of Artifactual ICA Components for Artifact Removal in EEG Signals","volume":"7","author":"Winkler","year":"2011","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Funct."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2015.02.025","article-title":"A practical guide to the selection of independent components of the electroencephalogram for artifact correction","volume":"250","author":"Chaumon","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2015.00354","article-title":"Musical neurofeedback for treating depression in elderly people","volume":"9","author":"Ramirez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"Delvin, K. (1998). The Language of Mathematics. Making the Invisible Visible, W. H. Freeman & Company."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2003.08.012","article-title":"In two minds: Dual-process accounts of reasoning","volume":"7","author":"Evans","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"978","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.128.6.978","article-title":"Logic and human reasoning; An assessment of the deduction paradigm","volume":"128","author":"Evans","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2020.104223","article-title":"A test of two processes: The effect of training on deductive and inductive reasoning","volume":"199","author":"Stephens","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"095006","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6579\/abb2eb","article-title":"Gender-dependent variations in optical illusions: Evidence from N400 waveforms","volume":"41","author":"Papageorgiou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Physiol. Meas."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7916(94)90063-9","article-title":"Measuring emotion: The self-assessment manikin and the semantic differential","volume":"25","author":"Bradley","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2297","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.88.6.2297","article-title":"Approximate entropy as a measure of system complexity","volume":"88","author":"Pincus","year":"1991","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H2039","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.2000.278.6.H2039","article-title":"Physiological time-series analysis using approximate entropy and sample entropy","volume":"278","author":"Richman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"021906","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevE.71.021906","article-title":"Multiscale entropy analysis of biological signals","volume":"71","author":"Costa","year":"2005","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. E"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.50.346","article-title":"Characterization of strange attractors","volume":"50","author":"Grassberger","year":"1983","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02065874","article-title":"A review of methods used to determine the fractal dimension of linear features","volume":"26","author":"Klinkenberg","year":"1994","journal-title":"Math. Geol."},{"key":"ref_100","first-page":"2585","article-title":"EEG feature extraction using Daubechies wavelet and classification using neural network","volume":"119","author":"Gowri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Pure Appl. Math."},{"key":"ref_101","first-page":"1613456","article-title":"Diagnosis of encephalopathy based on energies of EEG sub bands using discrete wavelet transform and support vector machine","volume":"1","author":"Jacob","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurol. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Percival, D.B., and Walden, A.T. (2000). Wavelet Methods for Time Series Analysis, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511841040"},{"key":"ref_103","unstructured":"Britton, J.W., Frey, L.C., Hopp, J.L., Korb, P., Koubeissi, M.Z., Lievens, W.E., Pestana-Knight, E.M., and Louis, E.K. (2016). Electroencephalography (EEG): An Introductory Text and Atlas of Normal and Abnormal Findings in Adults, Children, and Infants, American Epilepsy Society."},{"key":"ref_104","unstructured":"Jolliffe, J.L. (2002). Principal Component Analysis, Springer. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_105","unstructured":"John, G.H., and Langley, P. (2013). Estimating Continuous Distributions in Bayesian Classifiers. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_106","unstructured":"Kelleher, J.D., Mac Namee, B., and D\u2019Arcy, A. (2015). Fundamentals of Machine Learning for Predictive Data Analytics: Algorithms, Worked Examples, and Case Studies, The MIT press."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bishop, C. (1995). Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780198538493.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Azuaje, F., Witten, I.H., and Frank, E. (2006). Review of \u201cData Mining: Practical Learning Tools and Techniques\u201d by Witten and Frank. Biomed. Eng., 5.","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-925X-5-51"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2517-6161.1958.tb00292.x","article-title":"The regression analysis of binary sequences (with discussion)","volume":"20","author":"Cox","year":"1958","journal-title":"J. R. Stat. Soc. B"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1214\/aos\/1016218223","article-title":"Additive logistic regression: A statistical view of boosting (with discussion)","volume":"28","author":"Friedman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Ann. Stat."},{"key":"ref_111","unstructured":"Haykin, S. (2009). Neural Networks and Learning Machines, Pearson Education. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_112","unstructured":"Quinlan, R. (1993). Programs for Machine Learning, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers."},{"key":"ref_113","unstructured":"Vapnik, V.N. (1998). Statistical Learning Theory, John Willey and Sons Inc."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010933404324","article-title":"Random Forests","volume":"45","author":"Breiman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1984.10478083","article-title":"Cross-Validation of Regression Models","volume":"79","author":"Picard","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Am. Stat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_116","first-page":"1137","article-title":"A study of cross-validation and bootstrap for accuracy estimation and model selection","volume":"Volume 2","author":"Kohavi","year":"1995","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patrec.2005.10.010","article-title":"An introduction to ROC analysis","volume":"27","author":"Fawcett","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit. Lett."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1009715923555","article-title":"A tutorial for support vector machines for pattern recognition","volume":"2","author":"Burges","year":"1998","journal-title":"Data Min. Knowl. Discov."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/39.4.561","article-title":"Receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) plots: A fundamental evaluation tool in clinical medicine","volume":"39","author":"Zweig","year":"1993","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.594929","article-title":"Receiver-Operating Characteristic Analysis for Evaluating Diagnostic Tests and Predictive Models","volume":"115","author":"Zou","year":"2007","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_121","unstructured":"Kakkos, I. (2021). Processing and Analysis of EEG Data Recordings with the Application of Machine Learning Methods. [Ph.D. Thesis, National Technical University of Athens]."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01853","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.1853","article-title":"Deductive-reasoning brain networks: A coordinate-based meta-analysis of the neural signatures in deductive reasoning","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Behav."},{"key":"ref_123","unstructured":"Demos, J.N. (2005). Getting Started with Neurofeedback, Ww Norton & Co."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1002\/erv.2654","article-title":"Abnormalities in the EEG power spectrum in bulimia nervosa, binge-eating disorder, and obesity: A systematic review","volume":"27","author":"Blume","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. Eat. Disord. Rev."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-0968(199809)6:3<188::AID-ERV227>3.0.CO;2-G","article-title":"Assessment of Test-Meal Induced Autonomic Arousal in Anorexic, Bulimic and Control females","volume":"6","author":"Bond","year":"1998","journal-title":"Eur. Eat. Disord. Rev."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619780","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.619780","article-title":"A Systematic Review of Electrophysiological Findings in Binge-Purge Eating Disorders: A Window into Brain Dynamics","volume":"12","author":"Hilui","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s40708-023-00194-8","article-title":"Electrical analysis of logical complexity: An exploratory EEG study of logically valid\/invalid deductive inference","volume":"10","author":"Salto","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Inform."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2269","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.162.12.2269","article-title":"Is impaired set-shifting an endophenotype of anorexia nervosa?","volume":"162","author":"Holliday","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2004.03.001","article-title":"Set shifting in anorexia nervosa: An examination before and after weight gain, in full recovery and relationship to childhood and adult OCPD traits","volume":"38","author":"Tchanturia","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2193","DOI":"10.1097\/00001756-200312020-00012","article-title":"Neuronal activity changes and body image distortion in anorexia nervosa","volume":"14","author":"Wagner","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neuroreport"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rottenberg, J., and Johnson, S.L. (2007). Emotion and Psychopathology: Bridging Affective and Clinical Science, American Psychological Association.","DOI":"10.1037\/11562-000"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.1999.tb04108.x","article-title":"Reduced EEG alpha power in the male and female offspring of alcoholics","volume":"23","author":"Finn","year":"1999","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1395","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1460-9568.2002.01975.x","article-title":"Frontal theta activity in humans increases with memory load in a working memory task","volume":"15","author":"Jensen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1007\/s40519-020-00898-4","article-title":"The song of anorexia nervosa: A specific potential response to musical stimuli in affected participants","volume":"26","author":"Spalatro","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eat. Weight. Disord.-Stud. Anorex. Bulim. Obes."},{"key":"ref_135","first-page":"1","article-title":"Electroencephalography in eating disorders","volume":"8","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1816","DOI":"10.1002\/mpr.1816","article-title":"Nonlinear analysis of EEG complexity in episode and remission phase of recurrent depression","volume":"29","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Methods Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.2217\/14750708.4.3.285","article-title":"Translating laboratory research into clinical practice: Foundations, functions and future of cognitive remediation therapy for anorexia nervosa","volume":"4","author":"Baldock","year":"2007","journal-title":"Therapy"}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/14\/3\/251\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:09:05Z","timestamp":1760105345000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/14\/3\/251"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,4]]},"references-count":137,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci14030251"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci14030251","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,4]]}}}