{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,3]],"date-time":"2026-11-03T06:30:53Z","timestamp":1793687453353,"version":"4.5.1"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,7]],"date-time":"2024-05-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1715040000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC)","award":["2022-04777"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022-04777"]}]},{"name":"National Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC)","award":["RGPIN-2018-05917"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RGPIN-2018-05917"]}]},{"name":"Ontario Tech University Graduate Scholarship","award":["2022-04777"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022-04777"]}]},{"name":"Ontario Tech University Graduate Scholarship","award":["RGPIN-2018-05917"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RGPIN-2018-05917"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Virtual reality (VR) enables the development of virtual training frameworks suitable for various domains, especially when real-world conditions may be hazardous or impossible to replicate because of unique additional resources (e.g., equipment, infrastructure, people, locations). Although VR technology has significantly advanced in recent years, methods for evaluating immersion (i.e., the extent to which the user is engaged with the sensory information from the virtual environment or is invested in the intended task) continue to rely on self-reported questionnaires, which are often administered after using the virtual scenario. Having an objective method to measure immersion is particularly important when using VR for training, education, and applications that promote the development, fine-tuning, or maintenance of skills. The level of immersion may impact performance and the translation of knowledge and skills to the real-world. This is particularly important in tasks where motor skills are combined with complex decision making, such as surgical procedures. Efforts to better measure immersion have included the use of physiological measurements including heart rate and skin response, but so far they do not offer robust metrics that provide the sensitivity to discriminate different states (idle, easy, and hard), which is critical when using VR for training to determine how successful the training is in engaging the user\u2019s senses and challenging their cognitive capabilities. In this study, electroencephalography (EEG) data were collected from 14 participants who completed VR jigsaw puzzles with two different levels of task difficulty. Machine learning was able to accurately classify the EEG data collected during three different states, obtaining accuracy rates of 86% and 97% for differentiating easy versus hard difficulty states and baseline vs. VR states. Building on these results may enable the identification of robust biomarkers of immersion in VR, enabling real-time recognition of the level of immersion that can be used to design more effective and translative VR-based training. This method has the potential to adjust aspects of VR related to task difficulty to ensure that participants are immersed in VR.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci14050470","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,7]],"date-time":"2024-05-07T11:00:10Z","timestamp":1715079610000},"page":"470","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Biomarkers of Immersion in Virtual Reality Based on Features Extracted from the EEG Signals: A Machine Learning Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2466-8019","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hamed","family":"Tadayyoni","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences, Ontario Tech University, Oshawa, ON L1G 0C5, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7497-0438","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael S.","family":"Ramirez Campos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Biomedical Engineering, Universidad Escuela Colombiana de Ingenier\u00eda Julio Garavito, AK 45 #205-59, Bogot\u00e1 111166, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alvaro Joffre Uribe","family":"Quevedo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Business and Information Technology, Ontario Tech University, Oshawa, ON L1G 0C5, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9832-5740","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bernadette A.","family":"Murphy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences, Ontario Tech University, Oshawa, ON L1G 0C5, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2014.09.002","article-title":"Use of auditory event-related potentials to measure immersion during a computer game","volume":"73","author":"Burns","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. 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