{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T19:05:19Z","timestamp":1788375919887,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":778,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,30]],"date-time":"2024-10-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1730246400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives. Obesity, type 2 diabetes (T2D), and Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD) are pathologies that affect millions of people worldwide. They have no effective therapy and are difficult to prevent and control when they develop. It has been known for many years that these diseases have many pathogenic aspects in common. We highlight in this review that neuroglial cells (astroglia, oligodendroglia, and microglia) play a vital role in the origin, clinical\u2013pathological development, and course of brain neurodegeneration. Moreover, we include the new results of a T2D-AD mouse model (APP+PS1 mice on a high-calorie diet) that we are investigating. Methods. Critical bibliographic revision and biochemical neuropathological study of neuroglia in a T2D-AD model. Results. T2D and AD are not only \u201cconnected\u201d by producing complex pathologies in the same individual (obesity, T2D, and AD), but they also have many common pathogenic mechanisms. These include insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia, hyperglycemia, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and inflammation (both peripheral and central\u2014or neuroinflammation). Cognitive impairment and AD are the maximum exponents of brain neurodegeneration in these pathological processes. both due to the dysfunctions induced by metabolic changes in peripheral tissues and inadequate neurotoxic responses to changes in the brain. In this review, we first analyze the common pathogenic mechanisms of obesity, T2D, and AD (and\/or cerebral vascular dementia) that induce transcendental changes and responses in neuroglia. The relationships between T2D and AD discussed mainly focus on neuroglial responses. Next, we present neuroglial changes within their neuropathological context in diverse scenarios: (a) aging involution and neurodegenerative disorders, (b) human obesity and diabetes and obesity\/diabetes models, (c) human AD and in AD models, and (d) human AD-T2D and AD-T2D models. An important part of the data presented comes from our own studies on humans and experimental models over the past few years. In the T2D-AD section, we included the results of a T2D-AD mouse model (APP+PS1 mice on a high-calorie diet) that we investigated, which showed that neuroglial dysfunctions (astrocytosis and microgliosis) manifest before the appearance of amyloid neuropathology, and that the amyloid pathology is greater than that presented by mice fed a normal, non-high-caloric diet A broad review is finally included on pharmacological, cellular, genic, and non-pharmacological (especially diet and lifestyle) neuroglial-related treatments, as well as clinical trials in a comparative way between T2D and AD. These neuroglial treatments need to be included in the multimodal\/integral treatments of T2D and AD to achieve greater therapeutic efficacy in many millions of patients. Conclusions. Neuroglial alterations (especially in astroglia and microglia, cornerstones of neuroinflammation) are markedly defining brain neurodegeneration in T2D and A, although there are some not significant differences between each of the studied pathologies. Neuroglial therapies are a very important and p. promising tool that are being developed to prevent and\/or treat brain dysfunction in T2D-AD. The need for further research in two very different directions is evident: (a) characterization of the phenotypic changes of astrocytes and microglial cells in each region of the brain and in each phase of development of each isolated and associated pathology (single-cell studies are mandatory) to better understand the pathologies and define new therapeutic targets; (b) studying new therapeutic avenues to normalize the function of neuroglial cells (preventing neurotoxic responses and\/or reversing them) in these pathologies, as well as the phenotypic characteristics in each moment of the course and place of the neurodegenerative process.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci14111101","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,30]],"date-time":"2024-10-30T09:11:24Z","timestamp":1730279484000},"page":"1101","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Alzheimer\u2019s Disease, Obesity, and Type 2 Diabetes: Focus on Common Neuroglial Dysfunctions (Critical Review and New Data on Human Brain and Models)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2274-5949","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adolfo","family":"Toledano","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Cajal, CSIC, 28002 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-2770-9816","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Arantxa","family":"Rodr\u00edguez-Casado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Cajal, CSIC, 28002 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6796-809X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda Isabel","family":"\u00c4lvarez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Cajal, CSIC, 28002 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6679-485X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adolfo","family":"Toledano-D\u00edaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento Reproducci\u00f3n Animal, INIA-CSIC, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"GBD 2019 Dementia Forecasting Collaborators (2022). 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