{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,25]],"date-time":"2026-10-25T17:25:38Z","timestamp":1792949138771,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":130,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,26]],"date-time":"2025-02-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1740528000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000274","name":"British Heart Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FS\/PhD\/22\/29304"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FS\/PhD\/22\/29304"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000274","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease that damages the myelin sheath around the central nervous system axons, leading to neurological dysfunction. Although the initial damage is driven by inflammation, hypoxia has been reported in several brain regions of MS patients, but the significance of this for prognosis and treatment remains unclear. Neuroinflammation can induce hypoxia, and hypoxia can induce and exacerbate neuroinflammation, forming a vicious cycle. Within MS lesions, demyelination is often followed by remyelination, which may restore neurological function. However, demyelinated axons are vulnerable to damage, which leads to the accumulation of the permanent neurological dysfunction typical in MS, with this vulnerability heightened during hypoxia. Clinically approved therapies for MS are immunomodulatory, which can reduce relapse frequency\/severity, but there is a lack of pro-regenerative therapies for MS, for example promoting remyelination. All tissues have protective responses to hypoxia, which may be relevant to MS lesions, especially during remyelinating episodes. When oxygen levels are reduced in the brain, constitutively expressed hypoxia-inducible factors (HIF) are stabilised, upregulating hundreds of genes, including neuroprotective factors. Furthermore, astrocytes upregulate heparin-binding epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like growth factor (HB-EGF) in the early stage of MS. HB-EGF promotes protective mechanisms and induces oligodendrocyte and neuron differentiation and survival. This review article outlines the neuroinflammation and hypoxia cycle in MS pathology and identifies potential therapeutic targets to limit neurodegeneration and\/or promote regeneration. Both HIF and HB-EGF signalling pathways induce endogenous protection mechanisms in the CNS, promoting neuroprotection and remyelination directly, but also indirectly by modulating the immune response in MS. Promoting such endogenous protective signalling pathways could be an effective therapy for MS patients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci15030248","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,26]],"date-time":"2025-02-26T04:46:37Z","timestamp":1740545197000},"page":"248","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Hypoxic Neuroinflammation in the Pathogenesis of Multiple Sclerosis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1891-3599","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bethany Y. A.","family":"Hollingworth","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Allied Health Professions and Pharmacy, Keele University, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9001-6043","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrick N.","family":"Pallier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Neuroscience, Surgery and Trauma, The Blizard Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 2AT, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9857-957X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stuart I.","family":"Jenkins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neural Tissue Engineering Keele (NTEK), School of Medicine, Keele University, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8745-5902","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruoli","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Allied Health Professions and Pharmacy, Keele University, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pathol-052920-040318","article-title":"The Immune Response in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"17","author":"Farez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annu. 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