{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T00:36:57Z","timestamp":1789000617054,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,4]],"date-time":"2025-07-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1751587200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ecosistema dell\u2019innovazione\u2014Rome Technopole","award":["ECS0000024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ECS0000024"]}]},{"name":"Ecosistema dell\u2019innovazione\u2014Rome Technopole","award":["CUP H33C22000420001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUP H33C22000420001"]}]},{"name":"EU","award":["ECS0000024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ECS0000024"]}]},{"name":"EU","award":["CUP H33C22000420001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CUP H33C22000420001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>(1) Background: Biofeedback and neurofeedback are gaining attention as non-invasive rehabilitation strategies in Parkinson\u2019s disease (PD) treatment, aiming to modulate motor and non-motor symptoms through the self-regulation of physiological signals. (2) Objective: This review explores the application of biofeedback techniques, electromyographic (EMG) biofeedback, heart rate variability (HRV) biofeedback, and electroencephalographic (EEG) neurofeedback in PD rehabilitation, analyzing their impacts on motor control, autonomic function, and cognitive performance. (3) Methods: This review critically examined 15 studies investigating the efficacy of electromyographic (EMG), heart rate variability (HRV), and electroencephalographic (EEG) feedback interventions in PD. Studies were selected through a systematic search of peer-reviewed literature and analyzed in terms of design, sample characteristics, feedback modality, outcomes, and clinical feasibility. (4) Results: EMG biofeedback demonstrated improvements in muscle activation, gait, postural stability, and dysphagia management. HRV biofeedback showed positive effects on autonomic regulation, emotional control, and cardiovascular stability. EEG neurofeedback targeted abnormal cortical oscillations, such as beta-band overactivity and reduced frontal theta, and was associated with improvements in motor initiation, executive functioning, and cognitive flexibility. However, the reviewed studies were heterogeneous in design and outcome measures, limiting generalizability. Subgroup trends suggested modality-specific benefits across motor, autonomic, and cognitive domains. (5) Conclusions: While EMG and HRV systems are more accessible for clinical or home-based use, EEG neurofeedback remains technically demanding. Standardization of protocols and further randomized controlled trials are needed. Future directions include AI-driven personalization, wearable technologies, and multimodal integration to enhance accessibility and long-term adherence. Biofeedback presents a promising adjunct to conventional PD therapies, supporting personalized, patient-centered rehabilitation models.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci15070720","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,4]],"date-time":"2025-07-04T05:54:52Z","timestamp":1751608492000},"page":"720","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Biofeedback for Motor and Cognitive Rehabilitation in Parkinson\u2019s Disease: A Comprehensive Review of Non-Invasive Interventions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5470-3233","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pierluigi","family":"Diotaiuti","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Sciences, Society and Health, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, 03043 Cassino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-4624-9239","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giulio","family":"Marotta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Sciences, Society and Health, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, 03043 Cassino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Salvatore","family":"Vitiello","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Sciences, Society and Health, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, 03043 Cassino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesco","family":"Di Siena","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Sciences, Society and Health, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, 03043 Cassino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marco","family":"Palombo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Sciences, Society and Health, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, 03043 Cassino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elisa","family":"Langiano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Sciences, Society and Health, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, 03043 Cassino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0781-427X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Ferrara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Sciences, Society and Health, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, 03043 Cassino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9837-526X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefania","family":"Mancone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Sciences, Society and Health, University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, 03043 Cassino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2337","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-020-04796-6","article-title":"Eye movement especially vertical oculomotor impairment as an aid to assess Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"42","author":"Zhang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurol. 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