{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:36:46Z","timestamp":1787027806107,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,26]],"date-time":"2025-08-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756166400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The retinal vasculature provides a unique and non-invasive window into the health of the circulatory system. Josef Flammer, a pioneer in ocular vascular research, was the first to systematically describe how the state of retinal blood vessels reflects broader cardiovascular health. Because the retina is the only part of the human body where blood vessels can be visualized non-invasively, it serves as a valuable proxy for understanding microvascular conditions elsewhere, including the heart, brain, and lymphatics. Recent work has shown that retinal vasculature can be used as a proxy for microcirculatory dysfunction in other body systems, and that treatment using medical doses of vitamins can restore microcirculation, easing symptoms in disorders as diverse as glaucoma, AMD, and lymphedema without the need of pharmacological agents. The advent of machine learning tools to read retinal images promises both early detection of conditions and simplified monitoring of treatment progression.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci15090919","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,26]],"date-time":"2025-08-26T14:43:18Z","timestamp":1756219398000},"page":"919","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Disease Diagnosis Using Retinal Vasculature: Insights from Flammer Syndrome and AI"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0807-8983","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"George","family":"Ayoub","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Psychology Department, Santa Barbara City College, Santa Barbara, CA 93109, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1007\/s13167-017-0090-x","article-title":"The Discovery of the Flammer Syndrome: A Historical and Personal Perspective","volume":"8","author":"Flammer","year":"2017","journal-title":"EPMA J."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fang, L., Baertschi, M., and Mozaffarieh, M. 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