{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,12]],"date-time":"2026-07-12T03:55:47Z","timestamp":1783828547175,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":276,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,30]],"date-time":"2025-10-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761782400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000005","name":"DOD","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["W81XWH-22-1-0743"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["W81XWH-22-1-0743"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000005","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"NEI","award":["R01EY035375"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01EY035375"]}]},{"name":"NEI","award":["R01EY035715"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01EY035715"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100023015","name":"ARPA-H","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["75N99224R0002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["75N99224R0002"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100023015","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology from the Research to Prevent Blindness"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Visual impairment impacts nearly half a billion people globally. Corrective glasses, artificial lens replacement, and medical management have markedly improved the management of diseases inherent to the eye, such as refractive errors, cataracts, and glaucoma. However, therapeutic strategies for retinopathies, optic nerve damage, and distal optic pathways remain limited. The complex optic apparatus comprises multiple neural structures that transmit information from the retina to the diencephalon to the cortex. Over the last few decades, innovations have emerged to address the loss of function at each step of this pathway. Given the retina\u2019s lack of regenerative potential, novel treatment options have focused on replacing lost retinal cell types through cellular replacement with stem cells, restoring lost gene function with genetic engineering, and imparting new light sensation capabilities with optogenetics. Additionally, retinal neuroprosthetics have shown efficacy in restoring functional vision, and neuroprosthetic devices targeting the optic nerve, thalamus, and cortex are in early stages of development. Non-invasive neuromodulation has also shown some promise in modulating the visual cortex. Recently, the first in-human whole-eye transplant was performed. While functional vision was not restored, the feasibility of such a transplant with viable tissue graft at one year was demonstrated. Subsequent studies are now focused on guidance cues for axonal regeneration past the graft site to reach the lateral geniculate nucleus. Although the methods discussed above have shown promise individually, improvements in vision have been modest at best. Achieving the goal of restoration of functional vision will clearly require further development of cellular therapies, genetic engineering, transplantation, and neuromodulation. A concerted multidisciplinary effort involving scientists, engineers, ophthalmologists, neurosurgeons, and reconstructive surgeons will be necessary to restore vision for patients with vision loss from these challenging pathologies. In this expert review article, we describe the current literature in visual neurorestoration with respect to cellular therapeutics, genetic therapies, optogenetics, neuroprosthetics, non-invasive neuromodulation, and whole-eye transplant.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci15111170","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]],"date-time":"2025-10-31T01:23:59Z","timestamp":1761873839000},"page":"1170","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Visual Neurorestoration: An Expert Review of Current Strategies for Restoring Vision in Humans"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6239-4461","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jonathon","family":"Cavaleri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurological Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 900033, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michelle","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurological Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 900033, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kevin","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurological Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 900033, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zachary","family":"Gilbert","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, San Antonio Military Medical Center, Lackland, TX 78236, USA"},{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Connie","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4234-8991","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yu Tung","family":"Lo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurological Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 900033, USA"},{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 308433, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vahini","family":"Garimella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0202-2003","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jonathan C.","family":"Dallas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurological Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 900033, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert G.","family":"Briggs","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurological Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 900033, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Austin J.","family":"Borja","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurological Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 900033, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jae Eun","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurological Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 900033, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4566-9173","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrick R.","family":"Ng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurological Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 900033, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kimberly K.","family":"Gokoffski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Darrin J.","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurological Surgery, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 900033, USA"},{"name":"USC Neurorestoration Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e888","DOI":"10.1016\/S2214-109X(17)30293-0","article-title":"Magnitude, Temporal Trends, and Projections of the Global Prevalence of Blindness and Distance and near Vision Impairment: A Systematic Review and 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