{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]],"date-time":"2025-11-03T14:57:35Z","timestamp":1762181855654,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":72,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]],"date-time":"2025-10-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761868800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: As the global population ages, the prevalence of disorders associated with memory dysfunction (e.g., Alzheimer\u2019s disease) continues to increase. There is a need for novel interventions that can enhance memory and support affected individuals. Non-invasive brain stimulation provides a promising approach to engage circuits within the hippocampal network, a group of brain regions critical for episodic memory, and thereby improve cognition. Methods: Twenty healthy participants completed a single-blind, within-subject crossover study over four sessions. In each session, they received one of four interventions whilst viewing pictures of real-world objects: 40 Hz synchronised audiovisual stimulation (AVS), theta burst stimulation (TBS), a combination of synchronised 5 Hz repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation with AVS (rTMS + AVS), or sham rTMS. Electroencephalography (EEG) was recorded to measure associated brain activity changes. Following each intervention, participants completed a recognition memory task. Results: Mixed-effect repeated measure models (MRMMs) revealed no significant differences in recognition memory performance or theta (5 Hz) activity across conditions. However, both TBS and rTMS + AVS significantly increased gamma (40 Hz) activity compared to sham rTMS, and TBS induced a widespread increase in theta-gamma phase-amplitude coupling during picture viewing. Conclusions: While the neuromodulatory interventions did not enhance memory performance, the observed increase in gamma activity, particularly following rTMS-based stimulation, suggests potential engagement of neural processes associated with memory. These findings warrant further investigation into the role of gamma oscillations in memory and cognitive enhancement.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci15111182","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]],"date-time":"2025-11-03T13:22:36Z","timestamp":1762176156000},"page":"1182","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["An Investigation of the Modulating Effects of Sensory Stimulation and Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation on Memory-Related Brain Activity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4440-9273","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stevan","family":"Nikolin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Psychiatry and Mental Health, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"},{"name":"Black Dog Institute, Sydney, NSW 2031, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Matthew","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Psychiatry and Mental Health, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4365-9046","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adriano","family":"Moffa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Psychiatry and Mental Health, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Haijing","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Psychiatry and Mental Health, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9021-5491","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mei","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Siddhartha Raj","family":"Pande","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Black Dog Institute, Sydney, NSW 2031, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8452-0390","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Donel","family":"Martin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Discipline of Psychiatry and Mental Health, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia"},{"name":"Black Dog Institute, Sydney, NSW 2031, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Danieli, K., Guyon, A., and Bethus, I. (2023). Episodic Memory formation: A review of complex Hippocampus input pathways. Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry, 126.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2023.110757"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2009.126","article-title":"The episodic memory system: Neurocircuitry and disorders","volume":"35","author":"Dickerson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2016.16030360","article-title":"Computerized cognitive training in older adults with mild cognitive impairment or dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"174","author":"Hill","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1037\/neu0000626","article-title":"Neurocognitive subgroups in major depressive disorder","volume":"34","author":"Martin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Orygen (2021). Cognitive Impairment in Psychosis, Orygen. Landscape Report."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeong, W., Chung, C.K., and Kim, J.S. (2015). Episodic memory in aspects of large-scale brain networks. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2015.00454"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhv272","article-title":"Hippocampal contributions to the large-scale episodic memory network predict vivid visual memories","volume":"27","author":"Geib","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e45591","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.45591","article-title":"Cortico-hippocampal network connections support the multidimensional quality of episodic memory","volume":"8","author":"Cooper","year":"2019","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shi, Y., Yang, L., Lu, J., Yan, T., Ding, Y., and Wang, B. (2024). The dynamic reconfiguration of the functional network during episodic memory task predicts the memory performance. Sci. Rep., 14.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-71295-5"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101412","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2024.101412","article-title":"Rhythmic sensory stimulation as a noninvasive tool to study plasticity mechanisms in human episodic memory","volume":"58","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zmeykina, E., Mittner, M., Paulus, W., and Turi, Z. (2020). Weak rTMS-induced electric fields produce neural entrainment in humans. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-68687-8"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Phipps, C.J., Murman, D.L., and Warren, D.E. (2021). Stimulating memory: Reviewing interventions using repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation to enhance or restore memory abilities. Brain Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci11101283"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cutsuridis, V., and Yoshida, M. (2017). Editorial: Memory Processes in Medial Temporal Lobe: Experimental, Theoretical and Computational Approaches. Front. Syst. Neurosci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2017.00019"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1159\/000356422","article-title":"Memory function and the hippocampus","volume":"34","author":"Opitz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Neurol Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Camina, E., and G\u00fcell, F. (2017). The Neuroanatomical, Neurophysiological and Psychological Basis of Memory: Current Models and Their Origins. Front. Pharmacol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2017.00438"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-113011-143733","article-title":"Episodic Memory and Beyond: The Hippocampus and Neocortex in Transformation","volume":"67","author":"Moscovitch","year":"2016","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn.2016.21","article-title":"Rhythms of the hippocampal network","volume":"17","author":"Colgin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2019.04.004","article-title":"Modulating Human Memory via Entrainment of Brain Oscillations","volume":"42","author":"Hanslmayr","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01393","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.1393","article-title":"Episodic memory improvements due to noninvasive stimulation targeting the cortical-hippocampal network: A replication and extension experiment","volume":"9","author":"Hermiller","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Behav."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaar2768","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aar2768","article-title":"Selective and coherent activity increases due to stimulation indicate functional distinctions between episodic memory networks","volume":"4","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14378","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1513145112","article-title":"The human hippocampus contributes to both the recollection and familiarity components of recognition memory","volume":"112","author":"Merkow","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e49458","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.49458","article-title":"Stimulating the hippocampal posterior-medial network enhances task-dependent connectivity and memory","volume":"8","author":"Warren","year":"2019","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2016.12.042","article-title":"Stimulation of the Posterior Cortical-Hippocampal Network Enhances Precision of Memory Recollection","volume":"27","author":"Nilakantan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2014.12.024","article-title":"5Hz Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation to left prefrontal cortex for major depression","volume":"186","author":"Philip","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1452","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_01300","article-title":"Hippocampal-targeted Theta-burst Stimulation Enhances Associative Memory Formation","volume":"30","author":"Tambini","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7155","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0486-20.2020","article-title":"Evidence for Immediate Enhancement of Hippocampal Memory Encoding by Network-Targeted Theta-Burst Stimulation during Concurrent fMRI","volume":"40","author":"Hermiller","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1097\/00004691-200208000-00006","article-title":"Basic Mechanisms of TMS","volume":"19","author":"Terao","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, J., Deng, X.P., Wu, Y.Y., Li, X.L., Feng, Z.J., Wang, H.X., Jing, Y., Zhao, N., Zang, Y.F., and Zhang, J. (2020). High-Frequency rTMS of the Motor Cortex Modulates Cerebellar and Widespread Activity as Revealed by SVM. Front. Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2020.00186"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2584","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2006.06.712","article-title":"A comprehensive review of the effects of rTMS on motor cortical excitability and inhibition","volume":"117","author":"Fitzgerald","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2007.06.026","article-title":"Transcranial magnetic stimulation: A primer","volume":"55","author":"Hallett","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2013.06.007","article-title":"Enhancement of human cognitive performance using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)","volume":"85","author":"Luber","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"San Agust\u00edn, A., Crevill\u00e9n, D., Soto-Le\u00f3n, V., Moreno, J.C., Oliviero, A., and Pons, J.L. (2023). Transcranial magnetic stimulation combined with endogenous human hippocampal and motor cortical activity enhances memory. PLoS ONE, 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0295413"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2017.05.008","article-title":"A Closer Look at the Hippocampus and Memory","volume":"21","author":"Voss","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2004.12.033","article-title":"Theta burst stimulation of the human motor cortex","volume":"45","author":"Huang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3871","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2008.152736","article-title":"The physiological basis of the effects of intermittent theta burst stimulation of the human motor cortex","volume":"586","author":"Pilato","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2005.087288","article-title":"Theta-burst repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation suppresses specific excitatory circuits in the human motor cortex","volume":"565","author":"Pilato","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2015.03.004","article-title":"Efficacy and time course of theta burst stimulation in healthy humans","volume":"8","author":"Wischnewski","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2006.09.011","article-title":"Repetitive TMS over the human oculomotor cortex: Comparison of 1-Hz and theta burst stimulation","volume":"409","author":"Nyffeler","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2015.08.1541","article-title":"Comparison of different stimulation parameters of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for unilateral spatial neglect in stroke patients","volume":"359","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2021.08.014","article-title":"Theta-burst stimulation entrains frequency-specific oscillatory responses","volume":"14","author":"Solomon","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2811","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.2811","article-title":"Gamma oscillations and application of 40-Hz audiovisual stimulation to improve brain function","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Brain Behav."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"487","article-title":"Treating Alzheimer\u2019s Disease (AD) with Light and Sound","volume":"10","author":"Lukiw","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis. Park."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e041146","DOI":"10.1002\/alz.041146","article-title":"Sensory gamma frequency stimulation in cognitively healthy and AD individuals safely induces highly coordinated 40 hz neural oscillation: A preliminary study of non-invasive sensory stimulation for treating Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Dementia care research (research projects; nonpharmacological)\/Therapeutic strategies and interventions","volume":"16","author":"Suk","year":"2020","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2005.02.005","article-title":"EEG responses to long-term audio\u2013visual stimulation","volume":"59","author":"Teplan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychophysiol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chan, D., Suk, H.J., Jackson, B.L., Milman, N.P., Stark, D., Klerman, E.B., Kitchener, E., Fernandez Avalos, V.S., de Weck, G., and Banerjee, A. (2022). Gamma frequency sensory stimulation in mild probable Alzheimer\u2019s dementia patients: Results of feasibility and pilot studies. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0278412"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2019.02.014","article-title":"Multi-sensory Gamma Stimulation Ameliorates Alzheimer\u2019s-Associated Pathology and Improves Cognition","volume":"177","author":"Martorell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"929","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2019.04.011","article-title":"Gamma entrainment binds higher-order brain regions and offers neuroprotection","volume":"102","author":"Adaikkan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1038\/nature20587","article-title":"Gamma frequency entrainment attenuates amyloid load and modifies microglia","volume":"540","author":"Iaccarino","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-160081","article-title":"Short-Term Effects of Rhythmic Sensory Stimulation in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: An Exploratory Pilot Study","volume":"52","author":"Ahonen","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis. Park."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12178","DOI":"10.1002\/trc2.12178","article-title":"A feasibility trial of gamma sensory flicker for patients with prodromal Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"7","author":"He","year":"2021","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Dement."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1007\/s11263-014-0748-y","article-title":"Sun database: Exploring a large collection of scene categories","volume":"119","author":"Xiao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Vis."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156869","DOI":"10.1155\/2011\/156869","article-title":"FieldTrip: Open source software for advanced analysis of MEG, EEG, and invasive electrophysiological data","volume":"2011","author":"Oostenveld","year":"2011","journal-title":"Comput. Intell. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kobler, R.J., Sburlea, A.I., Mondini, V., and M\u00fcller-Putz, G.R. (2019, January 23\u201327). HEAR to remove pops and drifts: The high-variance electrode artifact removal (HEAR) algorithm. Proceedings of the 2019 41st Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBC), Berlin, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMBC.2019.8857742"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2017.10.021","article-title":"Automatic and robust noise suppression in EEG and MEG: The SOUND algorithm","volume":"166","author":"Mutanen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K\u00f6ster, M., Finger, H., Graetz, S., Kater, M., and Gruber, T. (2018). Theta-gamma coupling binds visual perceptual features in an associative memory task. Sci. Rep., 8.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-35812-7"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2018.12.002","article-title":"Memory entrainment by visually evoked theta-gamma coupling","volume":"188","author":"Martens","year":"2019","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1195","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00106.2010","article-title":"Measuring phase-amplitude coupling between neuronal oscillations of different frequencies","volume":"104","author":"Tort","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1080\/00401706.1983.10487848","article-title":"Percentage points for a generalized ESD many-outlier procedure","volume":"25","author":"Rosner","year":"1983","journal-title":"Technometrics"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1141","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.13434","article-title":"Robustness of linear mixed-effects models to violations of distributional assumptions","volume":"11","author":"Schielzeth","year":"2020","journal-title":"Methods Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2007.03.024","article-title":"Nonparametric statistical testing of EEG-and MEG-data","volume":"164","author":"Maris","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2014.08.003","article-title":"Cluster-based computational methods for mass univariate analyses of event-related brain potentials\/fields: A simulation study","volume":"250","author":"Pernet","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boonstra, T.W., Nikolin, S., Meisener, A.-C., Martin, D.M., and Loo, C.K. (2016). Change in mean frequency of resting-state electroencephalography after transcranial direct current stimulation. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2016.00270"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2004.05.018","article-title":"Spatiotemporal analysis of event-related fMRI data using partial least squares","volume":"23","author":"McIntosh","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbiomolbio.2010.09.015","article-title":"Multi-frequency phase locking in human somatosensory cortex","volume":"105","author":"Langdon","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107658","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107658","article-title":"Item recognition and lure discrimination in younger and older adults are supported by alpha\/beta desynchronization","volume":"148","author":"Karlsson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118454","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2021.118454","article-title":"Disentangling neocortical alpha\/beta and hippocampal theta\/gamma oscillations in human episodic memory formation","volume":"242","author":"Griffiths","year":"2021","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107755","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2021.107755","article-title":"Alpha\/beta power decreases during episodic memory formation predict the magnitude of alpha\/beta power decreases during subsequent retrieval","volume":"153","author":"Griffiths","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1016\/S1388-2457(02)00129-3","article-title":"EEG harmonic responses to photic stimulation in normal aging and Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Differences in interhemispheric coherence","volume":"113","author":"Kikuchi","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, K., Park, Y., Suh, S.W., Kim, S.-S., Kim, D.-W., Lee, J., Park, J., Yoo, S., and Kim, K.W. (2021). Optimal flickering light stimulation for entraining gamma waves in the human brain. Sci. Rep., 11.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-95550-1"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1007\/s11065-023-09580-9","article-title":"Cognitive effects following offline High-Frequency repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (HF-rTMS) in healthy populations: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"34","author":"Xu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pabst, A., Proksch, S., Mede, B., Comstock, D.C., Ross, J.M., and Balasubramaniam, R. (2022). A systematic review and meta-analysis of the efficacy of intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS) on cognitive enhancement. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 135.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2022.104587"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2021.113707","article-title":"Reproducing the effect of hippocampal network-targeted transcranial magnetic stimulation on episodic memory","volume":"419","author":"Freedberg","year":"2022","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/15\/11\/1182\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]],"date-time":"2025-11-03T14:06:12Z","timestamp":1762178772000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/15\/11\/1182"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]]},"references-count":72,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci15111182"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci15111182","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]]}}}