{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T10:28:45Z","timestamp":1789986525443,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1762992000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Social Sciences and Humanities project of the Ministry of Education","award":["23A10277004"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["23A10277004"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["81571658"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["81571658"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: The cerebellum contributes to both motor and cognitive functions. As basketball requires the integration of these abilities, basketball athletes provide an ideal model for exploring cerebellar adaptations. This study aimed to examine multidimensional cerebellar adaptations in basketball athletes and their associations with physical performance. Methods: In this study, 55 high-level basketball athletes and 55 non-athletes matched for age and gender were recruited for multimodal magnetic resonance imaging data collection and physical fitness tests. We compared the structural and functional differences in the brain between the two groups and analyzed the correlations between regional brain indices and physical fitness test outcomes. Results: Basketball athletes exhibited increased gray matter volume in Crus I, alongside heightened ALFF signal in Crus I and improved regional homogeneity in Crus II and VII b compared to non-athletes. Diffusion kurtosis imaging analysis demonstrated that athletes perform elevated kurtosis fractional anisotropy and decreased radial kurtosis within the cerebellar cortex and peduncles, with cortical modifications mainly localized around Crus I and lobule VI. Notably, both kurtosis fractional anisotropy and the amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations displayed positive correlations with vertical jump performance, an indicator specific to basketball ability. Conclusions: Basketball athletes exhibit structural, microstructural, and functional cerebellar adaptations, especially in Crus I. These modifications involve regions associated with motor and cognitive representations within the cerebellum, and part of the indexes are linked to the athletes\u2019 physical performance. This study enhances our understanding of cerebellar adaptive changes in athletes, providing new insights for future research aimed at fully elucidating the role of the cerebellum in these individuals.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci15111221","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T12:57:13Z","timestamp":1763038633000},"page":"1221","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Adaptations in the Structure and Function of the Cerebellum in Basketball Athletes"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Yapeng","family":"Qi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, Shanghai University of Sport, 399 Changhai Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200438, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yihan","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, Shanghai University of Sport, 399 Changhai Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200438, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenxuan","family":"Fang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Athletic Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai 200438, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xinwei","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Athletic Performance, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai 200438, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiaxin","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qichen","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, Shanghai University of Sport, 399 Changhai Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200438, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jilan","family":"Ning","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, Shanghai University of Sport, 399 Changhai Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200438, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, Shanghai University of Sport, 399 Changhai Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200438, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8470-7852","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaoxia","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, Shanghai University of Sport, 399 Changhai Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200438, China"},{"name":"Center for Exercise and Brain Science, Shanghai University of Sport, 399 Changhai Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200438, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1371","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-019-0436-x","article-title":"Functional Boundaries in the Human Cerebellum Revealed by a Multi-Domain Task Battery","volume":"22","author":"King","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102880","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2025.102880","article-title":"Characteristics of Positive and Negative Networks in Working Memory Task of Basketball Athletes","volume":"80","author":"Qi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Psychol. Sport Exerc."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.31083\/j.jin2310195","article-title":"Neuromodulation of the Cerebellum for Motor Applications: A Systematic Review","volume":"23","author":"Warthen","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Integr. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2332","article-title":"Control of Mental Activities by Internal Models in the Cerebellum","volume":"9","author":"Ito","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1007\/s12311-013-0511-x","article-title":"Consensus Paper: The Cerebellum\u2019s Role in Movement and Cognition","volume":"13","author":"Koziol","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cerebellum"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-neuro-070918-050258","article-title":"The Theory and Neuroscience of Cerebellar Cognition","volume":"42","author":"Schmahmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2024.106179","article-title":"Electrophysiological Differences in Inhibitory Control Processing between Collegiate Level Soccer Players and Non-Athletes in the Absence of Performance Differences","volume":"178","author":"Yao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain Cogn."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2023.11.048","article-title":"The Cerebellum","volume":"34","author":"Carey","year":"2024","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2025.01.004","article-title":"Ignoring the Cerebellum Is Hindering Progress in Neuroscience","volume":"29","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8301","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3792-12.2013","article-title":"The Long-Term Structural Plasticity of Cerebellar Parallel Fiber Axons and Its Modulation by Motor Learning","volume":"33","author":"Carrillo","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1080\/02701367.2022.2026285","article-title":"Increased Cerebellar Gray Matter Volume in Athletes: A Voxel-Wise Coordinate-Based Meta-Analysis","volume":"94","author":"Kang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Res. Q. Exerc. Sport"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1515\/revneuro-2013-0068","article-title":"Synapses Need Coordination to Learn Motor Skills","volume":"25","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, K., Jan, Y.-K., Liu, Y., Zhao, T., Zhang, L., Liu, R., Liu, J., and Cao, C. (2022). Exercise Intensity and Brain Plasticity: What\u2019s the Difference of Brain Structural and Functional Plasticity Characteristics Between Elite Aerobic and Anaerobic Athletes?. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2022.757522"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-020-02170-y","article-title":"Structural and Functional Brain Signatures of Endurance Runners","volume":"226","author":"Cao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Struct. Funct."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4145","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1651-19.2020","article-title":"Intrinsic Plasticity of Cerebellar Purkinje Cells Contributes to Motor Memory Consolidation","volume":"40","author":"Jang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Manto, M., and Huisman, T.A.G.M. (2018). The Cerebellum: Handbook of Clinical Neurology Series, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20210826","DOI":"10.1259\/bjr.20210826","article-title":"Effects of Combat Sports on Cerebellar Function in Adolescents: A Resting-State fMRI Study","volume":"95","author":"Li","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. J. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14513","DOI":"10.1111\/sms.14513","article-title":"Associations between Physical Fitness and Cerebellar Gray Matter Volume in Adolescents","volume":"34","author":"Jalanko","year":"2024","journal-title":"Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wenzel, U., Taubert, M., Ragert, P., Krug, J., and Villringer, A. (2014). Functional and Structural Correlates of Motor Speed in the Cerebellar Anterior Lobe. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0096871"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-statistics-040720-015536","article-title":"Modeling Player and Team Performance in Basketball","volume":"8","author":"Terner","year":"2021","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Stat. Its Appl."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2020.117152","article-title":"Identification of the Brain Networks That Contribute to the Interaction between Physical Function and Working Memory: An fMRI Investigation with over 1,000 Healthy Adults","volume":"221","author":"Ishihara","year":"2020","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S65","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3182872e01","article-title":"Motor Assessment Using the NIH Toolbox","volume":"80","author":"Reuben","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2677","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0000000000002459","article-title":"Power Testing in Basketball: Current Practice and Future Recommendations","volume":"32","author":"Wen","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Strength Cond. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Haff, G., Triplett, N.T., and National Strength & Conditioning Association (2015). Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning, Human Kinetics. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2009.01.045","article-title":"A Probabilistic MR Atlas of the Human Cerebellum","volume":"46","author":"Diedrichsen","year":"2009","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1007\/s12021-016-9299-4","article-title":"DPABI: Data Processing & Analysis for (Resting-State) Brain Imaging","volume":"14","author":"Yan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuroinformatics"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2008.04.012","article-title":"An Improved Approach to Detection of Amplitude of Low-Frequency Fluctuation (ALFF) for Resting-State fMRI: Fractional ALFF","volume":"172","author":"Zou","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1860","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5062-08.2009","article-title":"Cortical Hubs Revealed by Intrinsic Functional Connectivity: Mapping, Assessment of Stability, and Relation to Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"29","author":"Buckner","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116137","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2019.116137","article-title":"MRtrix3: A Fast, Flexible and Open Software Framework for Medical Image Processing and Visualisation","volume":"202","author":"Tournier","year":"2019","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1002\/jmri.28366","article-title":"Microstructural Alterations in Projection and Association Fibers in Neonatal Hypoxia\u2013Ischemia","volume":"57","author":"Cao","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Magn. Reson. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1582","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.26059","article-title":"Diffusion MRI Noise Mapping Using Random Matrix Theory","volume":"76","author":"Veraart","year":"2016","journal-title":"Magn. Reson. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1574","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.26054","article-title":"Gibbs-ringing Artifact Removal Based on Local Subvoxel-shifts","volume":"76","author":"Kellner","year":"2016","journal-title":"Magn. Reson. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.22655","article-title":"Estimation of Tensors and Tensor-derived Measures in Diffusional Kurtosis Imaging","volume":"65","author":"Tabesh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Magn. Reson. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2015.09.014","article-title":"A Probabilistic Atlas of the Cerebellar White Matter","volume":"124","author":"Kleinnijenhuis","year":"2016","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2025.115457","article-title":"The Cerebellar Connectome","volume":"482","author":"Boonstra","year":"2025","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Habas, C. (2021). Functional Connectivity of the Cognitive Cerebellum. Front. Syst. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2021.642225"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e59148","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.59148","article-title":"Disynaptic Cerebrocerebellar Pathways Originating from Multiple Functionally Distinct Cortical Areas","volume":"9","author":"Henschke","year":"2020","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2018.01.082","article-title":"Triple Representation of Language, Working Memory, Social and Emotion Processing in the Cerebellum: Convergent Evidence from Task and Seed-Based Resting-State fMRI Analyses in a Single Large Cohort","volume":"172","author":"Guell","year":"2018","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1007\/s11065-020-09465-1","article-title":"Cerebellar-Subcortical-Cortical Systems as Modulators of Cognitive Functions","volume":"31","author":"Clark","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2018.07.005","article-title":"The Cerebellum and Cognition","volume":"688","author":"Schmahmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"1638","article-title":"An Introduction to Kurtosis Fractional Anisotropy","volume":"40","author":"Hansen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Neuroradiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1002\/nbm.3271","article-title":"Quantitative Assessment of Diffusional Kurtosis Anisotropy: KURTOSIS ANISOTROPY","volume":"28","author":"Glenn","year":"2015","journal-title":"NMR Biomed."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1432","DOI":"10.1002\/mrm.20508","article-title":"Diffusional Kurtosis Imaging: The Quantification of Non-gaussian Water Diffusion by Means of Magnetic Resonance Imaging","volume":"53","author":"Jensen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Magn. Reson. Med."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Benedictis, A., Rossi-Espagnet, M.C., De Palma, L., Carai, A., and Marras, C.E. (2022). Networking of the Human Cerebellum: From Anatomo-Functional Development to Neurosurgical Implications. Front. Neurol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2022.806298"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fang, W., Qi, Y., Wang, Y., Li, X., Du, X., and Shao, B. (2025). Long-Term Basketball Training Shapes Cerebellar-Frontal Integration for Enhanced Cognitive Control. BMC Sports Sci. Med. Rehabil., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13102-025-01281-5"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcn.2020.100828","article-title":"The Effects of Physical Activity on Brain Structure and Neurophysiological Functioning in Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"45","author":"Meijer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Dev. Cogn. Neurosci."}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/15\/11\/1221\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]],"date-time":"2025-11-13T13:25:59Z","timestamp":1763040359000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/15\/11\/1221"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci15111221"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci15111221","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,13]]}}}