{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,29]],"date-time":"2026-10-29T06:13:19Z","timestamp":1793254399853,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":163,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,20]],"date-time":"2025-11-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763596800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Treatment-resistant psychiatric disorders represent a major clinical challenge, with a significant proportion of patients remaining refractory to conventional pharmacological and psychotherapeutic interventions. Deep brain stimulation (DBS), a neurosurgical technique delivering targeted electrical impulses to specific brain regions, has emerged as a promising intervention across a spectrum of refractory psychiatric conditions. This comprehensive narrative review synthesizes current evidence on the efficacy, safety, and practical considerations of DBS for treatment-resistant major depressive disorder, obsessive\u2013compulsive disorder, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, addictions, Tourette\u2019s syndrome, anorexia nervosa, post-traumatic stress disorder, and refractory aggression in autism spectrum disorder with severe intellectual disability. Across most conditions, DBS demonstrates clinically meaningful symptom reductions, with response and remission rates in depression and obsessive\u2013compulsive disorder approaching 48% and 35%, respectively. For Tourette\u2019s syndrome and refractory aggression in autism, over two-thirds of patients\u2019 experience &gt; 50% symptom reduction. Preliminary data in bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, addictions, and anorexia nervosa are encouraging but limited by small sample sizes and methodological heterogeneity. Safety profiles are generally acceptable, with the majority of adverse events being device- or procedure-related; psychiatric adverse effects and rare serious complications underscore the importance of careful patient selection and monitoring. However, the literature is constrained by inconsistent study designs, a paucity of randomized controlled trials, heterogeneity in DBS targets and stimulation parameters, and limited long-term and quality-of-life outcomes. Optimization of anatomical targeting, stimulation protocols, and patient selection criteria remains an ongoing challenge. Future directions require larger, rigorously controlled trials with standardized outcome measures, integration of neurobiological biomarkers, and multidisciplinary collaboration. In summary, while DBS offers transformative potential for select cases of refractory psychiatric illness, its application must be guided by scientific rigor, ethical prudence, and individualized patient-centered care.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci15111244","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,20]],"date-time":"2025-11-20T09:44:53Z","timestamp":1763631893000},"page":"1244","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Deep Brain Stimulation in Treatment-Resistant Psychiatric Disorders: Efficacy, Safety, and Future Directions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2970-6309","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohsen","family":"Khosravi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan 9813913777, Iran"},{"name":"Health Promotion Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan 9816743463, Iran"},{"name":"Community Nursing Research Center, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan 9816743463, Iran"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"GBD 2019 Mental Disorders Collaborators (2022). Global, regional, and national burden of 12 mental disorders in 204 countries and territories, 1990\u20132019: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet Psychiatry, 9, 137\u2013150.","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(21)00395-3"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-021-01200-3","article-title":"Treatment resistance in psychiatry: State of the art and new directions","volume":"27","author":"Howes","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van Kranenburg, G.D., Van den Brink, R.H., Mulder, W.G., Diekman, W.J., Pijnenborg, G.H., and Mulder, C.L. (2019). Clinical effects and treatment outcomes of long-term compulsory in-patient treatment of treatment-resistant patients with severe mental illness and substance-use disorder. BMC Psychiatry, 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-019-2254-9"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bnd.2025.02.001","article-title":"Comparative experience in the development of deep brain stimulation for movement disorders and psychiatric diseases: A review","volume":"1","author":"Macho","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Netw. Disord."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-023-01643-y","article-title":"Closing the loop in psychiatric deep brain stimulation: Physiology, psychometrics, and plasticity","volume":"49","author":"Widge","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117515","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2020.117515","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation for psychiatric disorders: From focal brain targets to cognitive networks","volume":"225","author":"Sullivan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1093\/psyrad\/kkab012","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation for psychiatric disorders: Role of imaging in identifying\/confirming DBS targets, predicting, and optimizing outcome and unravelling mechanisms of action","volume":"1","author":"Georgiev","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychoradiology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, Y.K. (2019). Novel neurostimulation therapeutic approaches for treatment-resistant psychiatric disorders. Treatment Resistance in Psychiatry, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-10-4358-1"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajp.2024.104354","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation\u2013A primer for psychiatrists","volume":"104","author":"Sharma","year":"2025","journal-title":"Asian J. Psychiatr."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kostick-Quenet, K., Kalwani, L., Koenig, B., Torgerson, L., Sanchez, C., Munoz, K., Hsu, R.L., Sierra-Mercado, D., Robinson, J.O., and Outram, S. (2022). Researchers\u2019 ethical concerns about using adaptive deep brain stimulation for enhancement. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2022.813922"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1136\/medethics-2019-106052","article-title":"Incoming ethical issues for deep brain stimulation: When long-term treatment leads to a \u2018new form of the disease\u2019","volume":"47","author":"Gilbert","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Med. Ethics"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1038\/ncpgasthep1331","article-title":"How to critically appraise an article","volume":"6","author":"Young","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Clin. Pract. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1080\/02680930500131801","article-title":"Clarity bordering on stupidity: Where\u2019s the quality in systematic review?","volume":"20","author":"MacLure","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Educ. Pol."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"1239","article-title":"Efficacy of deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"9","author":"Reddy","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry Cogn. Neurosci. Neuroimaging"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104032","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajp.2024.104032","article-title":"Deep transcranial magnetic stimulation for treatment-resistant depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies","volume":"96","author":"Lan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Asian J. Psychiatr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1075","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-023-02394-4","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation for refractory major depressive disorder: A comprehensive review","volume":"29","author":"Johnson","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ramasubbu, R., Lang, S., and Kiss, Z.H. (2018). Dosing of Electrical Parameters in Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) for Intractable Depression: A Review of Clinical Studies. Front. Psychiatry, 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2018.00302"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wu, Y., Mo, J., Sui, L., Zhang, J., Hu, W., Zhang, C., Wang, Y., Liu, C., Zhao, B., and Wang, X. (2021). Deep brain stimulation in treatment-resistant depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis on efficacy and safety. Front. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2021.655412"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hitti, F.L., Yang, A.I., Cristancho, M.A., and Baltuch, G.H. (2020). Deep brain stimulation is effective for treatment-resistant depression: A meta-analysis and meta-regression. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9092796"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"(2024, July 19). White Bradley: Treatment Resistant Depression Subcallosal Cingulate Network DBS (TRANSCEND). ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT06423430. Available online: https:\/\/clinicaltrials.ucbraid.org\/trial\/NCT06423430."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"839","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(17)30371-1","article-title":"Subcallosal cingulate deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression: A multisite, randomised, sham-controlled trial","volume":"4","author":"Holtzheimer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2014.11.023","article-title":"A randomized sham-controlled trial of deep brain stimulation of the ventral capsule\/ventral striatum for chronic treatment-resistant depression","volume":"78","author":"Dougherty","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-019-0369-9","article-title":"Superolateral medial forebrain bundle deep brain stimulation in major depression: A gateway trial","volume":"44","author":"Coenen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva-dos-Santos, A., Sales, M., Sebasti\u00e3o, A., and Gusm\u00e3o, R. (2021). A new viewpoint on the etiopathogenesis of depression: Insights from the neurophysiology of deep brain stimulation in Parkinson\u2019s disease and treatment-resistant depression. Front. Psychiatry, 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.607339"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2016.09.005","article-title":"Cellular and molecular mechanisms triggered by deep brain stimulation in depression: A preclinical and clinical approach","volume":"73","author":"Berrocoso","year":"2017","journal-title":"Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2018.04.016","article-title":"Treatment-resistant depression and suicidality","volume":"235","author":"Bergfeld","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2020.11.042","article-title":"Cause-specific life years lost in individuals with treatment-resistant depression: A Danish nationwide register-based cohort study","volume":"280 Pt A","author":"Madsen","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3171","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.3171","article-title":"Suicide-specific mortality among patients with treatment-resistant major depressive disorder, major depressive disorder with prior suicidal ideation or suicide attempts, or major depressive disorder alone","volume":"13","author":"Kern","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Behav."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1080\/13811118.2019.1691692","article-title":"Risk factors for suicide and suicide attempts among patients with treatment-resistant depression: Nested case-control study","volume":"25","author":"Reutfors","year":"2021","journal-title":"Arch. Suicide Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-021-01307-9","article-title":"A randomised, double-blind, sham-controlled trial of deep brain stimulation of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis for treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder","volume":"11","author":"Mosley","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1234","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-019-0562-6","article-title":"A prospective international multi-center study on safety and efficacy of deep brain stimulation for resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder","volume":"26","author":"Real","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.13232","article-title":"Long-term deep brain stimulation in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: Outcome and quality of life at four to eight years follow-up","volume":"24","author":"Winter","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuromodulation"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.13339","article-title":"Ventral capsule\/ventral striatum stimulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Toward a unified connectomic target for deep brain stimulation?","volume":"24","author":"Ackermans","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuromodulation"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e794","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wneu.2021.01.097","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation in the bed nucleus of stria terminalis in obsessive-compulsive disorder\u20141-year follow-up","volume":"149","author":"Hariz","year":"2021","journal-title":"World Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kahn, L., Sutton, B., Winston, H.R., Abosch, A., Thompson, J.A., and Davis, R.A. (2021). Deep brain stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder: Real world experience post-FDA-humanitarian use device approval. Front. Psychiatry, 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.568932"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wneu.2021.08.039","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens, ventral striatum, or internal capsule targets for medication-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: A multicenter study","volume":"155","author":"Treu","year":"2021","journal-title":"World Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1272","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2015.124","article-title":"Electrical stimulation in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis alleviates severe obsessive-compulsive disorder","volume":"21","author":"Luyten","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2018.12.226","article-title":"Personalized striatal targets for deep brain stimulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder","volume":"12","author":"Barcia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wneu.2014.12.024","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens and bed nucleus of stria terminalis for obsessive-compulsive disorder: A case series","volume":"83","author":"Islam","year":"2015","journal-title":"World Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maarouf, M., Neudorfer, C., El Majdoub, F., Lenartz, D., Kuhn, J., and Sturm, V. (2016). Deep brain stimulation of medial dorsal and ventral anterior nucleus of the thalamus in OCD: A retrospective case series. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0160750"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1017\/S1092852916000286","article-title":"The medial forebrain bundle as a target for deep brain stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder","volume":"22","author":"Coenen","year":"2017","journal-title":"CNS Spectr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/aww309","article-title":"Decisional impulsivity and the associative-limbic subthalamic nucleus in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Stimulation and connectivity","volume":"140","author":"Voon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2017.04.120","article-title":"Cost-effectiveness of deep brain stimulation versus treatment as usual for obsessive-compulsive disorder","volume":"10","author":"Ooms","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1177\/0004867417731819","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation for severe treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: An open-label case series","volume":"52","author":"Farrand","year":"2018","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2018.11.012","article-title":"Inferior thalamic peduncle deep brain stimulation for treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: A phase 1 pilot trial","volume":"12","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2018-318996","article-title":"Open-label trial of anterior limb of internal capsule\u2013nucleus accumbens deep brain stimulation for obsessive-compulsive disorder: Insights gained","volume":"90","author":"Huys","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.4103\/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_222_16","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of ventral internal capsule for refractory obsessive\u2013compulsive disorder","volume":"61","author":"Gupta","year":"2019","journal-title":"Indian J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.12740\/PP\/104643","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder-case report of two patients","volume":"53","author":"Siwicki","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Pol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2019.19060656","article-title":"Efficacy of deep brain stimulation of the ventral anterior limb of the internal capsule for refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: A clinical cohort of 70 patients","volume":"177","author":"Denys","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holland, M.T., Trapp, N.T., McCormick, L.M., Jareczek, F.J., Zanaty, M., Close, L.N., Beeghly, J., and Greenlee, J.D. (2020). Deep brain stimulation for obsessive\u2013compulsive disorder: A long term naturalistic follow up study in a single institution. Front. Psychiatry, 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.00055"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1349","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2020-323421","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in obsessive\u2013compulsives disorders: Long-term follow-up of an open, prospective, observational cohort","volume":"91","author":"Chabardes","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"726","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2019.01.017","article-title":"A randomized trial directly comparing ventral capsule and anteromedial subthalamic nucleus stimulation in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Clinical and imaging evidence for dissociable effects","volume":"85","author":"Tyagi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abdelnaim, M.A., Lang-Hambauer, V., Hebel, T., Schoisswohl, S., Schecklmann, M., Deuter, D., Schlaier, J., and Langguth, B. (2023). Deep brain stimulation for treatment resistant obsessive compulsive disorder; an observational study with ten patients under real-life conditions. Front. Psychiatry, 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2023.1242566"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1166","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2021-328738","article-title":"Efficacy of deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"93","author":"Gadot","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-020-00933-x","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation for refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): Emerging or established therapy?","volume":"26","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1017\/S1092852915000577","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation for bipolar disorder\u2014Review and outlook","volume":"22","author":"Gippert","year":"2017","journal-title":"CNS Spectr."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1001\/archgenpsychiatry.2011.1456","article-title":"Subcallosal cingulate deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant unipolar and bipolar depression","volume":"69","author":"Holtzheimer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1111\/bdi.12102","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of the subcallosal cingulate for medication-resistant type I bipolar depression: Case report","volume":"15","author":"Torres","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bipolar Disord."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.3109\/15622975.2010.510893","article-title":"H-coil repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for the treatment of bipolar depression: An add-on, safety and feasibility study","volume":"12","author":"Harel","year":"2011","journal-title":"World J. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1111\/bdi.13283","article-title":"Brain stimulation treatment for bipolar disorder","volume":"25","author":"Mutz","year":"2023","journal-title":"Bipolar Disord."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1159\/000319960","article-title":"A case of mania following deep brain stimulation for obsessive compulsive disorder","volume":"88","author":"Haq","year":"2010","journal-title":"Stereotact. Funct. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.2002.009803","article-title":"Long term effects of bilateral subthalamic nucleus stimulation on cognitive function, mood, and behaviour in Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"75","author":"Funkiewiez","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2009.09.013","article-title":"Nucleus accumbens deep brain stimulation decreases ratings of depression and anxiety in treatment-resistant depression","volume":"67","author":"Bewernick","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1002\/da.22746","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis of deep brain stimulation for depression","volume":"35","author":"Kisely","year":"2018","journal-title":"Depress. Anxiety"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E9","DOI":"10.3171\/2020.4.FOCUS20174","article-title":"Habenula deep brain stimulation for intractable schizophrenia: A pilot study","volume":"49","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosurg. Focus"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rpsm.2023.05.001","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation and digital monitoring for patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: A case series","volume":"18","author":"Bioque","year":"2025","journal-title":"Span. J. Psychiatry Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2021.03.007","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of the substantia nigra pars reticulata for treatment-resistant schizophrenia: A case report","volume":"90","author":"Cascella","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Corripio, I., Rold\u00e1n, A., Sarr\u00f3, S., McKenna, P.J., Alonso-Sol\u00eds, A., Rabella, M., D\u00edaz, A., Puigdemont, D., P\u00e9rez-Sol\u00e0, V., and \u00c1lvarez, E. (2020). Deep brain stimulation in treatment resistant schizophrenia: A pilot randomized cross-over clinical trial. EBioMedicine, 51.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2019.11.029"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2023.05.056","article-title":"Long-term outcomes of deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant schizophrenia: Exploring potential targets","volume":"163","author":"Collado","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sendi, M.S., Zendehrouh, E., Ellis, C.A., Liang, Z., Fu, Z., Mathalon, D.H., Ford, J.M., Preda, A., van Erp, T.G.M., and Miller, R.L. (2021). Aberrant dynamic functional connectivity of default mode network in schizophrenia and links to symptom severity. Front. Neural Circuits, 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fncir.2021.649417"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1007\/s12264-016-0090-1","article-title":"A review of the functional and anatomical default mode network in schizophrenia","volume":"33","author":"Hu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurosci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1111\/pcn.12830","article-title":"Role of basal ganglia neurocircuitry in the pathology of psychiatric disorders","volume":"73","author":"Macpherson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2012.11.018","article-title":"Impaired prefrontal-basal ganglia functional connectivity and substantia nigra hyperactivity in schizophrenia","volume":"74","author":"Yoon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2017.02.010","article-title":"The habenula in psychiatric disorders: More than three decades of translational investigation","volume":"83","author":"Fakhoury","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaheen, N., Shaheen, A., Sarica, C., Singh, A., Zanaty, M., Johari, K., Yang, A., Zesiewicz, T., Dalm, B., and Bezchlibnyk, Y. (2023). Deep brain stimulation for substance use disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Psychiatry, 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2023.1231760"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2011.114","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation in addiction: A review of potential brain targets","volume":"17","author":"Luigjes","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2015.06.023","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation for refractory cocaine dependence","volume":"79","author":"Campos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-020-00851-4","article-title":"Anterior cingulate cortex implants for alcohol addiction: A feasibility study","volume":"17","author":"Leong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vorspan, F., Domenech, P., Grabli, D., Yelnik, J., Delavest, M., Daur\u00e9, C., Bellivier, F., Pelissolo, A., Belaid, H., and Baunez, C. (2023). A single case report of STN-DBS for severe crack-cocaine dependence: Double-blind ON vs. SHAM randomized controlled assessment. Front. Psychiatry, 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2023.1146492"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-024-03060-1","article-title":"A systematic review of deep brain stimulation for substance use disorders","volume":"14","author":"Hughes","year":"2024","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wneu.2018.11.056","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of nucleus accumbens for methamphetamine addiction: Two case reports","volume":"122","author":"Ge","year":"2019","journal-title":"World Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1159\/000228930","article-title":"Observations on unaided smoking cessation after deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens","volume":"15","author":"Kuhn","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. Addict. Res."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1369-1600.2011.00337.x","article-title":"Successful deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens in severe alcohol dependence is associated with changed performance monitoring","volume":"16","author":"Kuhn","year":"2011","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2012.196","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens and its usefulness in severe opioid addiction","volume":"19","author":"Kuhn","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2018.09.006","article-title":"Long-term results after deep brain stimulation of nucleus accumbens and the anterior limb of the internal capsule for preventing heroin relapse: An open-label pilot study","volume":"12","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2017.07.018","article-title":"Death from opioid overdose after deep brain stimulation: A case report","volume":"83","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0029-1233489","article-title":"Successful treatment of chronic resistant alcoholism by deep brain stimulation of nucleus accumbens: First experience with three cases","volume":"42","author":"Sturm","year":"2009","journal-title":"Pharmacopsychiatry"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S28.e21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wneu.2012.07.011","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation surgery for alcohol addiction","volume":"80","author":"Voges","year":"2013","journal-title":"World Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1037\/pha0000453","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens\/ventral capsule for severe and intractable opioid and benzodiazepine use disorder","volume":"29","author":"Mahoney","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.3171\/2023.4.JNS23114","article-title":"Safety and feasibility clinical trial of nucleus accumbens deep brain stimulation for treatment-refractory opioid use disorder","volume":"140","author":"Rezai","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0042-104507","article-title":"Nucleus accumbens deep brain stimulation for alcohol addiction\u2013safety and clinical long-term results of a pilot trial","volume":"49","author":"Sturm","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pharmacopsychiatry"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2018.03.008","article-title":"Oscillatory local field potentials of the nucleus accumbens and the anterior limb of the internal capsule in heroin addicts","volume":"129","author":"Ge","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3992","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-022-01677-6","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens in the treatment of severe alcohol use disorder: A phase I pilot trial","volume":"27","author":"Davidson","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-023-02337-1","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens in treatment-resistant alcohol use disorder: A double-blind randomized controlled multi-center trial","volume":"13","author":"Bach","year":"2023","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E218","DOI":"10.1227\/01.NEU.0000360570.40339.64","article-title":"Smoking cessation and weight loss after chronic deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens: Therapeutic and research implications: Case report","volume":"66","author":"Mantione","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurosurgery"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1159\/000509313","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of nucleus accumbens with anterior capsulotomy for drug addiction: A case report","volume":"98","author":"Zhu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Stereotact. Funct. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2019.02.023","article-title":"Increased dopamine transporter levels following nucleus accumbens deep brain stimulation in methamphetamine use disorder: A case report","volume":"12","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1152","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.2006.113092","article-title":"Remission of alcohol dependency following deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens: Valuable therapeutic implications?","volume":"78","author":"Kuhn","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"Xu, J., and Wang, G. (2007, December 09). Therapeutic Effect of Deep Brain Stimulation of the Nucleus Accumbens on Refractory Drug Addiction: A Case Report. Available online: https:\/\/www.neuromodulation.com\/assets\/documents\/2007-ins-nans-conference-poster-abstracts-part1_107.pdf."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2011.02.012","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of nucleus accumbens on heroin-seeking behaviors: A case report","volume":"69","author":"Zhou","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2011.12.013","article-title":"Effective deep brain stimulation in heroin addiction: A case report with complementary intracranial electroencephalogram","volume":"71","author":"Luigjes","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heldmann, M., Berding, G., Voges, J., Bogerts, B., Galazky, I., M\u00fcller, U., Baillot, G., Heinze, H.-J., and M\u00fcnte, T.F. (2012). Deep brain stimulation of nucleus accumbens region in alcoholism affects reward processing. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0036572"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1177\/0004867419890671","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation removal after successful treatment for heroin addiction","volume":"54","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aloufi, A.K., Zahhar, J.A., Bader, M.W., Almutairi, M.B., Alaaldeen, A., Hetta, O.E., Gammash, A.M., Almuntashiri, S., Binrabaa, I.S., and Alsaleh, A. (2025). Tourette syndrome and brain stimulation therapy: A systematic review and meta-analysis of current evidence. Front. Psychiatry, 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2025.1478503"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Akbarian-Tefaghi, L., Zrinzo, L., and Foltynie, T. (2016). The use of deep brain stimulation in Tourette syndrome. Brain Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci6030035"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wehmeyer, L., Schueller, T., Kiess, J., Heiden, P., Visser-Vandewalle, V., Baldermann, J.C., and Andrade, P. (2021). Target-specific effects of deep brain stimulation for Tourette syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Neurol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.769275"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2015.11.005","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation for Tourette-syndrome: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"9","author":"Baldermann","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2017.4317","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of deep brain stimulation in Tourette syndrome: The international Tourette syndrome deep brain stimulation public database and registry","volume":"75","author":"Leckman","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1186\/s40035-020-0183-7","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation for Tourette\u2019s syndrome","volume":"9","author":"Xu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transl. Neurodegener."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.26094","article-title":"Tourette syndrome deep brain stimulation: A review and updated recommendations","volume":"30","author":"Schrock","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"952","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.65.7.952","article-title":"Internal pallidal and thalamic stimulation in patients with Tourette syndrome","volume":"65","author":"Welter","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1787","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3181a60a0c","article-title":"Improvement of tics after subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation","volume":"72","author":"Hariz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1525-1403.2012.00526.x","article-title":"Behavioral and motor improvement after deep brain stimulation of the globus pallidus externus in a case of Tourette\u2019s syndrome","volume":"16","author":"Piedimonte","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuromodulation"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marceglia, S., Rosa, M., Servello, D., Porta, M., Barbieri, S., Moro, E., and Priori, A. (2017). Adaptive deep brain stimulation (aDBS) for Tourette syndrome. Brain Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci8010004"},{"key":"ref_115","first-page":"e72613","article-title":"Role of Neurosurgical Interventions in the Treatment of Movement Disorders Like Parkinson\u2019s Disease, Dystonia, and Tourette Syndrome","volume":"16","author":"Ranjan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2014.05.014","article-title":"Motor improvement and emotional stabilization in patients with Tourette syndrome after deep brain stimulation of the ventral anterior and ventrolateral motor part of the thalamus","volume":"79","author":"Huys","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1227\/NEU.0b013e3182535a00","article-title":"What patients with Gilles de la Tourette syndrome should be treated with deep brain stimulation and what is the best target?","volume":"71","author":"Piedad","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurosurgery"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.5334\/tohm.126","article-title":"Lessons learned from open-label deep brain stimulation for Tourette syndrome: Eight cases over 7 years","volume":"1","author":"Motlagh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Tremor Other Hyperkinetic Mov."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(15)00008-3","article-title":"Bilateral globus pallidus stimulation for severe Tourette\u2019s syndrome: A double-blind, randomised crossover trial","volume":"14","author":"Kefalopoulou","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1007\/s00701-010-0851-y","article-title":"Tourette syndrome (TS) bears a higher rate of inflammatory complications at the implanted hardware in deep brain stimulation (DBS)","volume":"153","author":"Servello","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Neurochir."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2006.06.012","article-title":"Decreased numbers of regulatory T cells suggest impaired immune tolerance in children with tourette syndrome: A preliminary study","volume":"61","author":"Kawikova","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2008.01.014","article-title":"Dopaminergic receptor D5 mRNA expression is increased in circulating lymphocytes of Tourette syndrome patients","volume":"43","author":"Ferrari","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-022-02102-w","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of deep brain stimulation for treatment-refractory anorexia nervosa: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"12","author":"Karaszewska","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wneu.2022.09.114","article-title":"Effectiveness of deep brain stimulation in treatment of anorexia nervosa and obesity: A systematic review","volume":"168","author":"Hsu","year":"2022","journal-title":"World Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E5","DOI":"10.3171\/2022.11.FOCUS22616","article-title":"Efficacy of deep brain stimulation for the treatment of anorexia nervosa: A systematic review and network meta-analysis of patient-level data","volume":"54","author":"Shaffer","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurosurg. Focus"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2020.02.004","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens for treatment-refractory anorexia nervosa: A long-term follow-up study","volume":"13","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1528","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2021.10.387","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of the ventral anterior limb of the capsula interna in patients with treatment-refractory anorexia nervosa","volume":"14","author":"Oudijn","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Villalba Mart\u00ednez, G., Justicia, A., Salgado, P., Gin\u00e9s, J.M., Guardiola, R., Cedr\u00f3n, C., Polo, M., Delgado-Mart\u00ednez, I., Medrano, S., and Manero, R.M. (2020). A randomized trial of deep brain stimulation to the subcallosal cingulate and nucleus accumbens in patients with treatment-refractory, chronic, and severe anorexia nervosa: Initial results at 6 months of follow up. J. Clin. Med., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm9061946"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(17)30076-7","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of the subcallosal cingulate for treatment-refractory anorexia nervosa: 1 year follow-up of an open-label trial","volume":"4","author":"Lipsman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2009.11.016","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation in the subgenual cingulate cortex for an intractable eating disorder","volume":"67","author":"Steiger","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-53497-2.00022-X","article-title":"Evaluating the potential of deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant anorexia nervosa","volume":"116","author":"Lipsman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Handb. Clin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1361","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)62188-6","article-title":"Subcallosal cingulate deep brain stimulation for treatment-refractory anorexia nervosa: A phase 1 pilot trial","volume":"381","author":"Lipsman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1476","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2007.07030504","article-title":"Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: A meta-analysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia","volume":"164","author":"Etkin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1159\/000521130","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation for post-traumatic stress disorder: A review of the experimental and clinical literature","volume":"100","author":"Meeres","year":"2022","journal-title":"Stereotact. Funct. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2015.09.003","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of the basolateral amygdala for treatment-refractory posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"79","author":"Langevin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Langevin, J.P., Chen, J.W., Koek, R.J., Sultzer, D.L., Mandelkern, M.A., Schwartz, H.N., and Krahl, S.E. (2016). Deep brain stimulation of the basolateral amygdala: Targeting technique and electrodiagnostic findings. Brain Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci6030028"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2017.01.086","article-title":"Amygdala DBS for PTSD: 2 years of observations on the first case","volume":"10","author":"Koek","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brs.2018.12.391","article-title":"Basolateral amygdala deep brain stimulation for treatment refractory combat PTSD: Data from the first two cases","volume":"12","author":"Koek","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Stimul."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1080\/17434440.2023.2280023","article-title":"Advances in deep brain stimulation for the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder","volume":"20","author":"Nestor","year":"2023","journal-title":"Expert. Rev. Med. Devices"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2019.01.004","article-title":"Neuromodulatory treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)","volume":"92","author":"Koek","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2020.05.018","article-title":"Patient with posttraumatic stress disorder successfully treated with deep brain stimulation of the medial prefrontal cortex and uncinate fasciculus","volume":"88","author":"Hamani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2017.207","article-title":"Prefrontal cortex deep brain stimulation improves fear and anxiety-like behavior and reduces basolateral amygdala activity in a preclinical model of posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"43","author":"Reznikov","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.12551","article-title":"Posttraumatic stress disorder: Perspectives for the use of Deep brain stimulation","volume":"20","author":"Reznikov","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuromodulation"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Herrera-Pino, J., Benedetti-Isaac, J., Ripoll-Cordoba, D., Camargo, L., Castillo-Tamara, E.E., and Morales-Asencio, B. (2024). Effectiveness of deep brain stimulation on refractory aggression in pediatric patients with autism and severe intellectual disability: Meta-analytic review. BMC Pediatr., 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12887-024-04920-x"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1159\/000449171","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of the anterior limb of the internal capsule may be efficacious for explosive aggressive behaviour","volume":"94","author":"Giordano","year":"2016","journal-title":"Stereotact. Funct. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.3171\/2013.4.JNS121639","article-title":"Long-term results of posteromedial hypothalamic deep brain stimulation for patients with resistant aggressiveness","volume":"119","author":"Torres","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S29.e11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wneu.2012.06.038","article-title":"Deep-brain stimulation for aggressive and disruptive behavior","volume":"80","author":"Franzini","year":"2013","journal-title":"World Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rasd.2023.102131","article-title":"Effectiveness of deep brain stimulation in refractory and drug-resistant aggressiveness in autism spectrum disorder","volume":"102","author":"Camargo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Res. Autism Spectr. Disord."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1093\/ijnp\/pyab059","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation in the posteromedial hypothalamic nuclei in refractory aggressiveness: Post-surgical results of 19 cases","volume":"24","author":"Camargo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1152","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.13025","article-title":"Seizure frequency reduction after posteromedial hypothalamus deep brain stimulation in drug-resistant epilepsy associated with intractable aggressive behavior","volume":"56","author":"Furlanetti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sturm, V., Fricke, O., B\u00fchrle, C.P., Lenartz, D., Maarouf, M., Treuer, H., Mai, J.K., and Lehmkuhl, G. (2013). DBS in the basolateral amygdala improves symptoms of autism and related self-injurious behavior: A case report and hypothesis on the pathogenesis of the disorder. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2012.00341"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2010","DOI":"10.1111\/cns.14156","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation may be a viable option for resistant to treatment aggression in children with intellectual disability","volume":"29","author":"Camargo","year":"2023","journal-title":"CNS Neurosci. Ther."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1159\/000521766","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation for severe and intractable aggressive behavior","volume":"100","author":"Griswold","year":"2022","journal-title":"Stereotact. Funct. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1159\/000526871","article-title":"Long-term follow-up on bilateral posterior hypothalamic deep brain stimulation for treating refractory aggressive behavior in a patient with Cri du chat syndrome: Analysis of clinical data, intraoperative microdialysis, and imaging connectomics","volume":"100","author":"Germann","year":"2022","journal-title":"Stereotact. Funct. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1158","DOI":"10.3171\/2016.4.JNS141704","article-title":"Single-unit analysis of the human posterior hypothalamus and red nucleus during deep brain stimulation for aggressivity","volume":"126","author":"Micieli","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1007\/s00701-016-3002-2","article-title":"Nucleus accumbens deep brain stimulation for a patient with self-injurious behavior and autism spectrum disorder: Functional and structural changes of the brain: Report of a case and review of literature","volume":"159","author":"Park","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Neurochir."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Harat, M., Kiec, M., Ruda\u015b, M., Birski, M., and Furtak, J. (2021). Treating aggression and self-destructive behaviors by stimulating the nucleus accumbens: A case series. Front. Neurol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.706166"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1035","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parkreldis.2014.06.019","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation for severe secondary stereotypies","volume":"20","author":"Stocco","year":"2014","journal-title":"Park. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heiden, P., Weigel, D.T., Lou\u00e7\u00e3o, R., Hamisch, C., G\u00fcnd\u00fcz, E.M., Ruge, M.I., Kuhn, J., Visser-Vandewalle, V., and Andrade, P. (2022). Connectivity in deep brain stimulation for self-injurious behavior: Multiple targets for a common network?. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2022.958247"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E11","DOI":"10.3171\/2010.5.FOCUS10102","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation of the orbitofrontal projections for the treatment of intermittent explosive disorder","volume":"29","author":"Maley","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurosurg. Focus"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.3171\/2019.11.JNS192608","article-title":"Deep brain stimulation for aggressiveness: Long-term follow-up and tractography study of the stimulated brain areas","volume":"134","author":"Torres","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1089\/cap.2018.0084","article-title":"Tardive dyskinesia should not be overlooked","volume":"29","author":"Kakko","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Child. Adolesc. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, A., Gong, C., Wang, B., Sun, J., and Jiang, Z. (2023). Non-invasive brain stimulation for patient with autism: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Psychiatry, 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2023.1147327"}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/15\/11\/1244\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,20]],"date-time":"2025-11-20T10:30:12Z","timestamp":1763634612000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/15\/11\/1244"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,20]]},"references-count":163,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci15111244"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci15111244","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,20]]}}}