{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T01:55:48Z","timestamp":1785376548208,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":319,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,17]],"date-time":"2026-01-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768608000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive neuromodulation technique that utilizes magnetic fields to induce cortical electric currents, enabling both the measurement and modulation of neuronal activity. Initially developed as a diagnostic tool, TMS now serves dual roles in clinical neurology, offering insight into neurophysiological dysfunctions and the therapeutic modulation of abnormal cortical excitability. This review examines key TMS outcome measures, including motor thresholds (MT), input\u2013output (I\/O) curves, cortical silent periods (CSP), and paired-pulse paradigms such as short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI), short-interval intracortical facilitation (SICF), intracortical facilitation (ICF), long interval cortical inhibition (LICI), interhemispheric inhibition (IHI), and short-latency afferent inhibition (SAI). These biomarkers reflect underlying neurotransmitter systems and can aid in differentiating neurological conditions. Diagnostic applications of TMS are explored in Parkinson\u2019s disease (PD), dystonia, essential tremor (ET), Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD), and mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Each condition displays characteristic neurophysiological profiles, highlighting the potential for TMS-derived biomarkers in early or differential diagnosis. Therapeutically, repetitive TMS (rTMS) has shown promise in modulating cortical circuits and improving motor and cognitive symptoms. High- and low-frequency stimulation protocols have demonstrated efficacy in PD, dystonia, ET, AD, and MCI, targeting the specific cortical regions implicated in each disorder. Moreover, the successful application of TMS in differentiating and treating AD and MCI underscores its clinical utility and translational potential across all neurodegenerative conditions. As research advances, increased attention and investment in TMS could facilitate similar diagnostic and therapeutic breakthroughs for other neurological disorders that currently lack robust tools for early detection and effective intervention. Moreover, this review also aims to underscore the importance of maintaining standardized TMS protocols. By highlighting inconsistencies and variability in outcomes across studies, we emphasize that careful methodological design is critical for ensuring the reproducibility, comparability, and reliable interpretation of TMS findings. In summary, this review emphasizes the value of TMS as a distinctive, non-invasive approach to probing brain function and highlights its considerable promise as both a diagnostic and therapeutic modality in neurology\u2014roles that are often considered separately.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci16010101","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,19]],"date-time":"2026-01-19T08:23:56Z","timestamp":1768811036000},"page":"101","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Versatility of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: A Review of Diagnostic and Therapeutic Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-7230-5104","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Massimo","family":"Pascuzzi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Krembil Research Institute, Toronto Western Hospital, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 2S8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nika","family":"Naeini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Krembil Research Institute, Toronto Western Hospital, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 2S8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adam","family":"Dorich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Krembil Research Institute, Toronto Western Hospital, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 2S8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marco","family":"D\u2019Angelo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Krembil Research Institute, Toronto Western Hospital, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 2S8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiwon","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Krembil Research Institute, Toronto Western Hospital, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 2S8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2697-4885","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jean-Francois","family":"Nankoo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Krembil Research Institute, Toronto Western Hospital, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 2S8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7999-7488","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Naaz","family":"Desai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Krembil Research Institute, Toronto Western Hospital, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 2S8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8371-8629","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robert","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Krembil Research Institute, Toronto Western Hospital, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5T 2S8, Canada"},{"name":"Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/S0208-5216(11)70014-6","article-title":"Excitatory and Inhibitory Effects of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation","volume":"31","author":"Ni","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biocybern. 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