{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]],"date-time":"2026-07-17T13:08:26Z","timestamp":1784293706852,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,9]],"date-time":"2026-02-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1770595200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["62407034"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["62407034"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Ministry of education of Humanities and Social Science project","award":["24YJCZH046"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24YJCZH046"]}]},{"name":"Natural Science Basic Research Program of Shaanxi","award":["2024JC-YBQN-0704"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024JC-YBQN-0704"]}]},{"name":"Social Science Fund Project of Shaanxi","award":["2024K005"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024K005"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009103","name":"Shaanxi Provincial Education Department","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["24JS042"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24JS042"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009103","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009103","name":"Shaanxi Provincial Education Department","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["25JS101"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["25JS101"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009103","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Motor imagery-based brain-computer interfaces (MI-BCIs) enable individuals who are unable to perform physical movements to interact with the external world by imagining movements. Users are typically classified as good performers or BCI-illiterate based on the classification accuracy of distinct EEG patterns (e.g., 60% or 70%). Yet, studies show that approximately 70% of users fall within intermediate accuracies between 60% and 80%, and although exceed the chance level, they often fail to achieve reliable MI-BCI control. Intermediate users often exhibit asymmetric motor imagery abilities between left and right hands, highlighting the need for refined early assessment and stratified training approaches. Methods: We employed ICA to decompose each participant\u2019s EEG data and extract independent ERD\/ERS components as indicators using a rule-based automated framework. This framework integrated dipole localization, ERD\/ERS characteristics, and frequency-band power features of ICs. Importantly, we applied a power spectral parameterization approach to remove the 1\/f-like background activity in power estimation and used statistical methods to precisely estimate the latency and duration of ERD. The extracted indicators were subsequently subjected to clustering analysis to categorize participants into four groups. Results: In addition to good performers (24.8%) and poor performers (35.8%), two groups were identified: LgoodRpoor (27.5%), who performed well in left-hand MI but poorly in right-hand MI, and LpoorRgood (11.9%), who showed the opposite pattern. Notably, these unilateral performers did not show significant differences in contralateral ERD but exhibited substantial differences in ipsilateral ERS. Conclusions: The proposed independent event-related brain dynamics model enables more refined stratification of MI-BCI users. Findings from this characterization study may inform the design of graded training protocols, especially for users demonstrating unilateral motor imagery proficiency.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci16020202","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,9]],"date-time":"2026-02-09T09:41:02Z","timestamp":1770630062000},"page":"202","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["A Neurophysiological Stratification Framework for Intermediate Motor Imagery-BCI Users Based on Independent Event-Related Brain Dynamics"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5875-3588","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xu","family":"Duan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory for Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Neuroscience of Language, Xi\u2019an International Studies University, Xi\u2019an 710128, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Songyun","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Artificial Intelligence, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi\u2019an 710072, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4934-4894","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yujie","family":"Cui","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory for Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Neuroscience of Language, Xi\u2019an International Studies University, Xi\u2019an 710128, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ting","family":"Ji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory for Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Neuroscience of Language, Xi\u2019an International Studies University, Xi\u2019an 710128, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hao","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory for Artificial Intelligence and Cognitive Neuroscience of Language, Xi\u2019an International Studies University, Xi\u2019an 710128, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1109\/TRE.2000.847807","article-title":"Brain-computer interface technology: A review of the first international meeting","volume":"8","author":"Wolpaw","year":"2000","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. 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