{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T23:01:42Z","timestamp":1791241302688,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":177,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,14]],"date-time":"2026-02-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771027200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Thyroid hormones (THs) are master controllers in the endocrine system and have drawn considerable attention from the research community due to their associations with neurodegenerative diseases as well. In this review article, we present a comprehensive summary of the physiological functions and pathogenic mechanisms of THs in the regulation of several representative neurodegenerative diseases. Our study particularly focuses on Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD), Parkinson\u2019s disease (PD), and multiple sclerosis (MS). AD is the most common cause of dementia, primarily caused by tau protein tangles inside nerve cells and \u03b2-amyloid plaques outside, which lead to nerve cell death and brain atrophy. PD is primarily a movement disorder. The degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the brain impairs the brain\u2019s control over muscle activity. MS is usually considered to be an autoimmune demyelinating disease, but it has been found that MS also presents with secondary neurodegenerative pathology, including axonal loss and neuronal damage. In this review, the effects of TH on the pathogeneses of AD, PD, and MS are discussed in detail, with a focus on the following potential mechanisms: neuroprotection, neurogenesis, oxidative stress, and inflammatory response. In addition, we conduct an in-depth review of the possible clinical applications of TH, TH analogs, and thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) in the treatment of AD, PD, and MS based on recent preclinical and clinical studies. By integrating experimental, clinical, and epidemiological results on the effects of TH on neurodegeneration, the present review constructs a theoretical basis for the involvement of TH in the pathogeneses of these diseases in detail. We believe that this basis will be useful for clinical diagnosis and treatment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci16020229","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]],"date-time":"2026-02-16T11:11:28Z","timestamp":1771240288000},"page":"229","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Emerging Roles, Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Potential of Thyroid Hormones in Neurodegenerative Diseases: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3407-908X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xin\u2019ai","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Thyropathy, Dongzhimen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100700, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhe","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Thyropathy, Dongzhimen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100700, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manna","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Laboratory, Lixing Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital, Kaifeng 475400, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yunlong","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The 3st Ward, Department of Cardiology, Tongxu No.1 Hospital, Kaifeng 475400, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Han","family":"Bai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Thyropathy, Dongzhimen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100700, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaoheng","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Thyropathy, Dongzhimen Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100700, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0892-9909","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Junhui","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Thyropathy Hospital, Sun Simiao Hospital, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Tongchuan 727000, China"},{"name":"Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, ON M5G 1X5, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1064","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.jbchem.a122965","article-title":"Physicochemical properties of 57 kDa thyroid hormone binding protein from rat liver nuclei","volume":"106","author":"Okabe","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.94102290","article-title":"Polychlorinated biphenyls as hormonally active structural analogues","volume":"102","author":"McKinney","year":"1994","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1102","DOI":"10.1002\/cmdc.202000164","article-title":"Physicochemical Properties of Zwitterionic Drugs in Therapy","volume":"15","year":"2020","journal-title":"ChemMedChem"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1021\/jm00217a001","article-title":"Thyroxine analogues. 23. Quantitative structure-activity correlation studies of in vivo and in vitro thyromimetic activities","volume":"20","author":"Dietrich","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fame, R.M., Ali, I., Lehtinen, M.K., Kanarek, N., and Petrova, B. (2024). Optimized Mass Spectrometry Detection of Thyroid Hormones and Polar Metabolites in Rodent Cerebrospinal Fluid. Metabolites, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo14020079"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.3923\/pjbs.2023.453.457","article-title":"Thyroid Hormones Regulate the Thermoregulatory Mechanisms of the Body: Review","volume":"26","author":"Filfilan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pak. J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, X., Zhang, H., Guan, S., Zhao, Q., and Shan, Y. (2023). Receptor modulators associated with the hypothalamus -pituitary-thyroid axis. Front. Pharmacol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2023.1291856"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-12-0177","article-title":"Thyroid hormone transporters and deiodinases in the developing human hypothalamus","volume":"167","author":"Friesema","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2017.02.029","article-title":"Therapeutic applications of thyroid hormone analogues in resistance to thyroid hormone (RTH) syndromes","volume":"458","author":"Groeneweg","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1000","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2018-00275","article-title":"Paradigms of Dynamic Control of Thyroid Hormone Signaling","volume":"40","author":"Bianco","year":"2019","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1038\/s42255-025-01442-3","article-title":"AMPK at the interface of nutrient sensing, metabolic flux and energy homeostasis","volume":"8","author":"Smith","year":"2026","journal-title":"Nat. Metab."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sheng, Z., Luo, Q., Liu, X., and Yang, X. (2025). Bioactives and exercise synergize to modulate AMPK and inflammation. Front. Immunol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2025.1670379"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1007\/s10522-025-10380-2","article-title":"FOXO: A key target in regulating aging and age-related diseases","volume":"27","author":"Wang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Biogerontology"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"167","article-title":"The erbA\/thyroid hormone receptor genes in development of the central nervous system","volume":"5","author":"Forrest","year":"1994","journal-title":"Semin. Cancer Biol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2017.02.012","article-title":"New insights into thyroid hormone action","volume":"173","author":"Mendoza","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Saponaro, F., Sestito, S., Runfola, M., Rapposelli, S., and Chiellini, G. (2020). Selective Thyroid Hormone Receptor-Beta (TR\u03b2) Agonists: New Perspectives for the Treatment of Metabolic and Neurodegenerative Disorders. Front. Med., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2020.00331"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1328","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2016-1842","article-title":"A Thyroid Hormone-Based Strategy for Correcting the Biochemical Abnormality in X-Linked Adrenoleukodystrophy","volume":"158","author":"Hartley","year":"2017","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2025.115227","article-title":"Promotion of remyelination by a thyromimetic drug leading to functional recovery","volume":"389","author":"Duncan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u0142ombik, K., Detka, J., and Budziszewska, B. (2021). Hormonal Regulation of Oxidative Phosphorylation in the Brain in Health and Disease. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10112937"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-025-05290-w","article-title":"The Role of Thyroid Hormones in Neurodegenerative Disorders: Opportunities and Challenges","volume":"63","author":"Zhang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13171","DOI":"10.1111\/jne.13171","article-title":"Nuclear hormone receptors in demyelinating diseases","volume":"34","author":"McKenzie","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.12740\/PP\/112470","article-title":"Cognitive functions and thyroid hormones secretion disorders","volume":"55","author":"Przybylak","year":"2021","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Pol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Z., and Liu, J. (2024). Thyroid dysfunction and Alzheimer\u2019s disease, a vicious circle. Front. Endocrinol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2024.1354372"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s40618-020-01314-5","article-title":"Shedding light on thyroid hormone disorders and Parkinson disease pathology: Mechanisms and risk factors","volume":"44","author":"Mohammadi","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol. Investig."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"239","article-title":"Aging, cellular senescence and Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"15","author":"Ma","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Park. Dis."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s40035-025-00467-8","article-title":"Parkinson\u2019s disease and glucose metabolism impairment","volume":"14","author":"Chen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Transl. Neurodegener."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1186\/s13024-025-00827-y","article-title":"Immune cell metabolic dysfunction in Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"20","author":"Mark","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Neurodegener."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong, Y., and Watson, D.J. (2025). Thyrotropin-releasing hormone protects hippocampal neurons against glutamate toxicity via phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase\/AKT pathway and new protein synthesis. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2025.11.11.687668"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Graceffo, E., Opitz, R., Megges, M., Krude, H., and Schuelke, M. (2024). RNA Sequencing Reveals a Strong Predominance of THRA Splicing Isoform 2 in the Developing and Adult Human Brain. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.1101\/2023.12.22.573013"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"216","article-title":"The relationship between thyroid deficiency and blood-based biomarkers of cognitive disorders","volume":"44","author":"Alamara","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuro Endocrinol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stemcr.2022.01.002","article-title":"Developmental thyroid disruption permanently affects the neuroglial output in the murine subventricular zone","volume":"17","author":"Vancamp","year":"2022","journal-title":"Stem Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1193","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2019.0763","article-title":"A Direct Comparison of Thyroid Hormone Receptor Protein Levels in Mice Provides Unexpected Insights into Thyroid Hormone Action","volume":"30","author":"Minakhina","year":"2020","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, Y., Song, Z., Huang, M., Li, C., Nong, C., Jiang, T., Li, Z., and Yi, Z. (2025). Elucidating thyroid hormone transport proteins disruption by nitrophenols through computational and spectroscopic analysis. Biophys. Chem., 320\u2013321, 107415.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpc.2025.107415"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1111\/epi.17117","article-title":"Antiseizure medications and thyroid hormone homeostasis: Literature review and practical recommendations","volume":"63","author":"Rochtus","year":"2022","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong, X., Dong, J., Zhao, Y., Guo, J., Wang, Z., Liu, M., Zhang, Y., and Na, X. (2017). Effects of Long-Term In Vivo Exposure to Di-2-Ethylhexylphthalate on Thyroid Hormones and the TSH\/TSHR Signaling Pathways in Wistar Rats. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph14010044"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vincenzi, M., Camilot, M., Ferrarini, E., Teofoli, F., Venturi, G., Gaudino, R., Cavarzere, P., De Marco, G., Agretti, P., and Dimida, A. (2014). Identification of a novel pax8 gene sequence variant in four members of the same family: From congenital hypothyroidism with thyroid hypoplasia to mild subclinical hypothyroidism. BMC Endocr. Disord., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1472-6823-14-69"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1387","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2040-4603.2016.tb00708.x","article-title":"Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis","volume":"6","author":"Chiamolera","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compr. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, X., Cao, Y., Jin, H., Wang, X., Zhang, L., Zhang, Y., Yu, Y., Huang, Y., Gao, Y., and Zhang, J. (2022). Hydrogen Sulfide Promotes Thyroid Hormone Synthesis and Secretion by Upregulating Sirtuin-1. Front. Pharmacol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.838248"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, J., Shen, S., Yan, Y., Liu, L., Luo, R., Liu, S., Wu, Y., Li, Y., Jiang, J., and Ying, H. (2023). Iodide Excess Inhibits Thyroid Hormone Synthesis Pathway Involving XBP1-Mediated Regulation. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15040887"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfm312","article-title":"A biologically based dose-response model for dietary iodide and the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis in the adult rat: Evaluation of iodide deficiency","volume":"102","author":"McLanahan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2022.08.021","article-title":"Emerging roles of Keap1\/Nrf2 signaling in the thyroid gland and perspectives for bench-to-bedside translation","volume":"190","author":"Chartoumpekis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K\u00f6hrle, J. (2023). Selenium, Iodine and Iron-Essential Trace Elements for Thyroid Hormone Synthesis and Metabolism. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms24043393"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1038\/s41575-024-00991-4","article-title":"Actions of thyroid hormones and thyromimetics on the liver","volume":"22","author":"Sinha","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4865","DOI":"10.1113\/JP286449","article-title":"Hypothyroidism alters the rhythmicity of the central clock, body temperature and metabolism: Evidence of Bmal1 transcriptional regulation by T3","volume":"602","author":"Emrich","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2009.09.008","article-title":"Thyroid hormone action during brain development: More questions than answers","volume":"315","author":"Horn","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.apcsb.2023.12.024","article-title":"Thyroid hormone biosynthesis and its role in brain development and maintenance","volume":"142","year":"2024","journal-title":"Adv. Protein Chem. Struct. Biol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1097\/YCO.0b013e328329e1ae","article-title":"Thyroid disorders in mental patients","volume":"22","author":"Bunevicius","year":"2009","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-0716-4252-8_2","article-title":"Thyroid Hormone Action by Genomic and Nongenomic Molecular Mechanisms","volume":"2876","author":"Aranda","year":"2025","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tedeschi, L., Vassalle, C., Iervasi, G., and Sabatino, L. (2021). Main Factors Involved in Thyroid Hormone Action. Molecules, 26.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules26237337"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yfrne.2007.09.003","article-title":"Mechanisms of nongenomic actions of thyroid hormone","volume":"29","author":"Davis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Front. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alcaide Martin, A., and Mayerl, S. (2023). Local Thyroid Hormone Action in Brain Development. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241512352"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105567","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2021.105567","article-title":"Deficient thyroid hormone transport to the brain leads to impairments in axonal caliber and oligodendroglial development","volume":"162","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105902","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquatox.2021.105902","article-title":"Bisphenols disrupt thyroid hormone (TH) signaling in the brain and affect TH-dependent brain development in Xenopus laevis","volume":"237","author":"Niu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aquat. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dong, M., Li, Y., Zhu, M., Li, J., and Qin, Z. (2021). Tetrabromobisphenol A Disturbs Brain Development in Both Thyroid Hormone-Dependent and -Independent Manners in Xenopus laevis. Molecules, 27.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules27010249"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1093\/toxsci\/kfac038","article-title":"Gestational Exposure to Perchlorate in the Rat: Thyroid Hormones in Fetal Thyroid Gland, Serum, and Brain","volume":"188","author":"Gilbert","year":"2022","journal-title":"Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1298","DOI":"10.1159\/000525719","article-title":"Short- and Long-Term Effects of Chlorpyrifos on Thyroid Hormone Axis and Brain Development in Xenopus laevis","volume":"113","author":"Spirhanzlova","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5679","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2024.07.041","article-title":"Thyroid hormone remodels cortex to coordinate body-wide metabolism and exploration","volume":"187","author":"Hochbaum","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hochbaum, D.R., Dubinsky, A.C., Farnsworth, H.C., Hulshof, L., Kleinberg, G., Urke, A., Wang, W., Hakim, R., Robertson, K., and Park, C. (2023). Thyroid hormone rewires cortical circuits to coordinate body-wide metabolism and exploratory drive. bioRxiv.","DOI":"10.1101\/2023.08.10.552874"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bqae101","DOI":"10.1210\/endocr\/bqae101","article-title":"Thyroid Hormone Receptors Function in GABAergic Neurons During Development and in Adults","volume":"165","author":"Flamant","year":"2024","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"e23722","article-title":"Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor-Mediated Cognitive Impairment in Hypothyroidism","volume":"14","author":"Madhusudhan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tjnut.2023.11.007","article-title":"Cellular Iron Deficiency Disrupts Thyroid Hormone Regulated Gene Expression in Developing Hippocampal Neurons","volume":"154","author":"Monko","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8214","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0002-22.2022","article-title":"Tsh Induces Agrp1 Neuron Proliferation in Oatp1c1-Deficient Zebrafish","volume":"42","author":"Admati","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bqae154","DOI":"10.1210\/endocr\/bqae154","article-title":"Structural Insights Into Thyroid Hormone Receptors","volume":"166","author":"Tambones","year":"2024","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.2478\/enr-2021-0012","article-title":"Thyroid hormone and thyroid hormone nuclear receptors: History and present state of art","volume":"55","author":"Brtko","year":"2021","journal-title":"Endocr. Regul."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bqae164","DOI":"10.1210\/endocr\/bqae164","article-title":"Transcriptional Cofactors for Thyroid Hormone Receptors","volume":"166","author":"Ritter","year":"2025","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"1","article-title":"A rare mutation of thyroid hormone receptor beta gene in thyroid hormone resistance syndrome","volume":"1","author":"Muratori","year":"2021","journal-title":"Endocrinol. Diabetes Metab. Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"luaf267","DOI":"10.1210\/jcemcr\/luaf267","article-title":"Novel Thyroid Hormone Receptor \u03b2 Gene Variant (F245L) Causing Mild Resistance to Thyroid Hormone","volume":"3","author":"Yamagami","year":"2025","journal-title":"JCEM Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"841","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2014-07-587337","article-title":"Integrin \u03b1v\u03b23 acting as membrane receptor for thyroid hormones mediates angiogenesis in malignant T cells","volume":"125","author":"Cayrol","year":"2015","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ariyani, W., Miyazaki, W., Amano, I., and Koibuchi, N. (2022). Involvement of integrin \u03b1v\u03b23 in thyroid hormone-induced dendritogenesis. Front. Endocrinol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.938596"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y., Sj\u00f6linder, M., Wang, X., Altenbacher, G., Hagner, M., Berglund, P., Gao, Y., Lu, T., Jonsson, A.B., and Sj\u00f6linder, H. (2012). Thyroid hormone enhances nitric oxide-mediated bacterial clearance and promotes survival after meningococcal infection. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0041445"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Selivanova, E.K., Gaynullina, D.K., and Tarasova, O.S. (2021). Thyroxine Induces Acute Relaxation of Rat Skeletal Muscle Arteries via Integrin \u03b1v\u03b23, ERK1\/2 and Integrin-Linked Kinase. Front. Physiol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2021.726354"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24237","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.10757","article-title":"Crosstalk between integrin \u03b1v\u03b23 and ER\u03b1 contributes to thyroid hormone-induced proliferation of ovarian cancer cells","volume":"8","author":"Hsieh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tieman, K., and Heyland, A. (2025). Developmental effects of sulfated thyroid hormones in sea urchin skeletogenesis suggest activation of non-canonical thyroid hormone signaling pathway. Front. Endocrinol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2025.1648899"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127066","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2020.127066","article-title":"TDCPP mimics thyroid hormones associated with the activation of integrin \u03b1v\u03b23 and ERK1\/2","volume":"256","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquatox.2023.106510","article-title":"Exploring the underlying molecular mechanism of tri(1,3-dichloropropyl) phosphate-induced neurodevelopmental toxicity via thyroid hormone disruption in zebrafish by multi-omics analysis","volume":"258","author":"Xu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Aquat. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2012-1072","article-title":"Novel insights on thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor signal transduction","volume":"34","author":"Kleinau","year":"2013","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kleinau, G., Worth, C.L., Kreuchwig, A., Biebermann, H., Marcinkowski, P., Scheerer, P., and Krause, G. (2017). Structural-Functional Features of the Thyrotropin Receptor: A Class A G-Protein-Coupled Receptor at Work. Front. Endocrinol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2017.00086"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1530\/JOE-20-0026","article-title":"Thyrotropin receptor signaling deficiency impairs spatial learning and memory in mice","volume":"246","author":"Luan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149723","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2024.149723","article-title":"TSHR signaling promotes hippocampal dependent memory formation through modulating Wnt5a\/\u03b2-catenin mediated neurogenesis","volume":"704","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/s00232-020-00158-7","article-title":"Compartmentalized GPCR Signaling from Intracellular Membranes","volume":"254","author":"Crilly","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Membr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1007\/s10867-009-9157-9","article-title":"Astrocyte-neuron interactions in neurological disorders","volume":"35","author":"Ricci","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Biol. Phys."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2004.063214","article-title":"Neurone-to-astrocyte signalling in the brain represents a distinct multifunctional unit","volume":"559","author":"Fellin","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1530\/JOE-19-0172","article-title":"Skeletal effects of nongenomic thyroid hormone receptor beta signaling","volume":"242","author":"Lindsey","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1089\/dna.1998.17.743","article-title":"Thyroid hormone receptor is a negative regulator in p53-mediated signaling pathways","volume":"17","author":"Zhan","year":"1998","journal-title":"DNA Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1677\/jme.1.01505","article-title":"Regulation of fibronectin by thyroid hormone receptors","volume":"33","author":"Lin","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Mol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, J.H., Lee, H.S., Kim, Y.H., Kwon, M.J., Kim, J.H., Min, C.Y., Yoo, D.M., and Choi, H.G. (2022). The Association Between Thyroid Diseases and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease in a National Health Screening Cohort in Korea. Front. Endocrinol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.815063"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e39394","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000039394","article-title":"Thyroid dysfunction and risk of different types of dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"103","author":"Ye","year":"2024","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/0197-4580(89)90058-4","article-title":"Prevalence of thyroid abnormalities is not increased in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"10","author":"Lopez","year":"1989","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Aging"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1745","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.41.11.1745","article-title":"The association between Alzheimer\u2019s disease and thyroid disease in Rochester, Minnesota","volume":"41","author":"Yoshimasu","year":"1991","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104844","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2020.104844","article-title":"Altered thyroid hormone profile in patients with Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"121","author":"Quinlan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1547","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2019.0727","article-title":"Relationship Between Thyroid Hormone Levels and the Pathology of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease in Euthyroid Subjects","volume":"30","author":"Choi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-215092","article-title":"Comparison of Serum Triiodothyronine with Biomarkers for Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Continuum in Euthyroid Subjects","volume":"85","author":"Ge","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Alzheimers Dis."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.14283\/jpad.2023.20","article-title":"The Role of Thyroid Dysfunction in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"10","author":"Salehipour","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Prev. Alzheimers Dis."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578780","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2025.578780","article-title":"Association of thyroid autoimmune status with Alzheimer\u2019s disease biomarkers in euthyroid subjects","volume":"409","author":"Ge","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3405","DOI":"10.1007\/s10571-023-01392-y","article-title":"Primary Hypothyroidism and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: A Tale of Two","volume":"43","author":"AlAnazi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1381","DOI":"10.1002\/hipo.22319","article-title":"PTU-induced hypothyroidism in rats leads to several early neuropathological signs of Alzheimer\u2019s disease in the hippocampus and spatial memory impairments","volume":"24","author":"Chaalal","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hippocampus"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eadi1863","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.adi1863","article-title":"Brain hypothyroidism silences the immune response of microglia in Alzheimer\u2019s disease animal model","volume":"10","author":"Kim","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1186\/s13195-024-01534-4","article-title":"Moderation of thyroid hormones for the relationship between amyloid and tau pathology","volume":"16","author":"Byeon","year":"2024","journal-title":"Alzheimers Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2019.0255","article-title":"Exogenous 3-Iodothyronamine Rescues the Entorhinal Cortex from \u03b2-Amyloid Toxicity","volume":"30","author":"Accorroni","year":"2020","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2021.105271","article-title":"T(1)AM-TAAR1 signalling protects against OGD-induced synaptic dysfunction in the entorhinal cortex","volume":"151","author":"Tozzi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sep\u00falveda, P., Ferreira, A.F.F., Sandoval, C., Bergoc, G., Moreno, A.C.R., Nunes, M.T., and Torr\u00e3o, A.D.S. (2024). Thyroid Hormone Supplementation Restores Cognitive Deficit, Insulin Signaling, and Neuroinflammation in the Hippocampus of a Sporadic Alzheimer\u2019s-like Disease Rat Model. Cells, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells13211793"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bqae124","DOI":"10.1210\/endocr\/bqae124","article-title":"Thyroid Hormone and Alzheimer Disease: Bridging Epidemiology to Mechanism","volume":"165","author":"Escamilla","year":"2024","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-025-10185-7","article-title":"Intranasal Delivery of Lithium Salt Suppresses Inflammatory Pyroptosis in the Brain and Ameliorates Memory Loss and Depression-like Behavior in 5XFAD Mice","volume":"20","author":"Bhuiyan","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106472","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2024.106472","article-title":"Microstructural alterations of the hypothalamus in Parkinson\u2019s disease and probable REM sleep behavior disorder","volume":"194","author":"Zhou","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"ENEURO.0239-24.2024","DOI":"10.1523\/ENEURO.0239-24.2024","article-title":"Associations between Thyroid Hormones and Cognitive Impairment in Patients with Parkinson\u2019s Disease","volume":"11","author":"Peng","year":"2024","journal-title":"eNeuro"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.3233\/JPD-202265","article-title":"Association Between Thyroid Diseases and Parkinson\u2019s Disease: A Nested Case-Control Study Using a National Health Screening Cohort","volume":"11","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Parkinsons Dis."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gabaldon-Albero, A., Mayo, S., and Martinez, F. (2024). NR4A2 as a Novel Target Gene for Developmental and Epileptic Encephalopathy: A Systematic Review of Related Disorders and Therapeutic Strategies. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms25105198"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2023.102177","article-title":"Bridging neurotrophic factors and bioactive peptides to Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"94","author":"Wei","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1002\/mdc3.13656","article-title":"Thyroid Disorders and Movement Disorders-A Systematic Review","volume":"10","author":"Schneider","year":"2023","journal-title":"Mov. Disord. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.26510","article-title":"Systemic Metabolic Alteration Dependent on the Thyroid-Liver Axis in Early PD","volume":"93","author":"Miyamoto","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_111","first-page":"965","article-title":"Association of Pathological Progression of Parkinson\u2019s Disease and the Thyroid Gland","volume":"75","author":"Saiki","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Nerve"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rozo-Paz, G., Ruiz-Forero, C.M., Su\u00e1rez-Mera, J.D., Monsalve Duarte, G., and Kattah Calder\u00f3n, W. (2025). Levodopa induces thyroid function regulation in a patient with thyroid hormone resistance and Parkinson\u2019s disease: A case report. Front. Endocrinol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2025.1536372"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1481","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-023-07176-y","article-title":"No causal relationship between thyroid function and Parkinson\u2019s disease: A bidirectional Mendelian randomization study","volume":"45","author":"Zeng","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_114","first-page":"105","article-title":"The Hypothalamic Paraventricular Nucleus Is the Center of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis for Regulating Thyroid Hormone Levels","volume":"32","author":"Kondo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Thyroidr"},{"key":"ref_115","first-page":"29","article-title":"The role of Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone in aging and neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"1","author":"Daimon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Alzheimers Dis."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2611","DOI":"10.1016\/0024-3205(83)90352-1","article-title":"Minireview. Peptides and the blood-brain barrier","volume":"32","author":"Meisenberg","year":"1983","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1515\/revneuro-2014-0067","article-title":"Role of Toll-like receptor\/MYD88 signaling in neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"26","author":"Xiang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ryskamp, D.A., Korban, S., Zhemkov, V., Kraskovskaya, N., and Bezprozvanny, I. (2019). Neuronal Sigma-1 Receptors: Signaling Functions and Protective Roles in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Front. Neurosci., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2019.00862"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104312","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lpm.2025.104312","article-title":"Effects of thyroid disruption on neural cells stem fate in the mouse brain","volume":"54","author":"Butruille","year":"2025","journal-title":"Presse Med."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.vh.2021.02.009","article-title":"Thyroid hormone regulation of adult neural stem cell fate: A comparative analysis between rodents and primates","volume":"116","author":"Butruille","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vitam. Horm."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vujovic, F., and Farahani, R.M. (2025). Thyroid Hormones and Brain Development: A Focus on the Role of Mitochondria as Regulators of Developmental Time. Cells, 14.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202501.0720.v1"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1002\/dvdy.535","article-title":"Transcriptome analysis of the response to thyroid hormone in Xenopus neural stem and progenitor cells","volume":"252","author":"Faunes","year":"2023","journal-title":"Dev. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vancamp, P., Butruille, L., Demeneix, B.A., and Remaud, S. (2020). Thyroid Hormone and Neural Stem Cells: Repair Potential Following Brain and Spinal Cord Injury. Front. Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2020.00875"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-020-02836-9","article-title":"Dual effects of thyroid hormone on neurons and neurogenesis in traumatic brain injury","volume":"11","author":"Lin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106572","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2024.106572","article-title":"Combined deletion of Mct8 and Dio2 impairs SVZ neurogliogenesis and olfactory function in adult mice","volume":"199","author":"Vancamp","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stemcr.2020.12.009","article-title":"Absence of Both Thyroid Hormone Transporters MCT8 and OATP1C1 Impairs Neural Stem Cell Fate in the Adult Mouse Subventricular Zone","volume":"16","author":"Luongo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stem Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2023.108211","article-title":"Deleterious functional consequences of perfluoroalkyl substances accumulation into the myelin sheath","volume":"180","author":"Butruille","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117654","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2021.117654","article-title":"The pyriproxyfen metabolite, 4\u2032-OH-PPF, disrupts thyroid hormone signaling in neural stem cells, modifying neurodevelopmental genes affected by ZIKA virus infection","volume":"285","author":"Vancamp","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moore, A., Chinnaiya, K., Kim, D.W., Brown, S., Stewart, I., Robins, S., Dowsett, G.K.C., Muir, C., Travaglio, M., and Lewis, J.E. (2022). Loss of Function of the Neural Cell Adhesion Molecule NrCAM Regulates Differentiation, Proliferation and Neurogenesis in Early Postnatal Hypothalamic Tanycytes. Front. Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2022.832961"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e23501","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.202301805RRR","article-title":"TRIP6 promotes neural stem cell maintenance through YAP-mediated Sonic Hedgehog activation","volume":"38","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baldassarro, V.A., Quadalti, C., Runfola, M., Manera, C., Rapposelli, S., and Calz\u00e0, L. (2023). Synthetic Thyroid Hormone Receptor-\u03b2 Agonists Promote Oligodendrocyte Precursor Cell Differentiation in the Presence of Inflammatory Challenges. Pharmaceuticals, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph16091207"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9355","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-59533-2","article-title":"Spatiotemporal expression of thyroid hormone transporter MCT8 and THRA mRNA in human cerebral organoids recapitulating first trimester cortex development","volume":"14","author":"Graffunder","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"Itc1","DOI":"10.7326\/AITC202007070","article-title":"Hypothyroidism","volume":"173","author":"McDermott","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surg.2022.05.044","article-title":"Thyroid hormone replacement following lobectomy: Long-term institutional analysis 15 years after surgery","volume":"173","author":"Barranco","year":"2023","journal-title":"Surgery"},{"key":"ref_135","first-page":"e90685","article-title":"Personalized Approaches to Hypothyroidism: The Role of Triiodothyronine (T3) in Thyroid Hormone Replacement","volume":"17","author":"Mazza","year":"2025","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-025-05322-5","article-title":"Magnesium L-Threonate Reduces Hippocampal Amyloid-\u03b2 Load without Cognitive Improvement in a PTU-induced Hypothyroidism Model in Young Rats","volume":"63","author":"Akkaya","year":"2025","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wolff, T.M., Dietrich, J.W., and M\u00fcller, M.A. (2022). Optimal Hormone Replacement Therapy in Hypothyroidism\u2014A Model Predictive Control Approach. Front. Endocrinol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.884018"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wilson, J.B., Hoang, T.D., Lee, M.L., Epstein, M., and Friedman, T.C. (2025). Reverse T3 in patients with hypothyroidism on different thyroid hormone replacement. PLoS ONE, 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0325046"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e100870","DOI":"10.5812\/ijem.100870","article-title":"LT4 and Slow Release T3 Combination: Optimum Therapy for Hypothyroidism?","volume":"18","author":"Azizi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rossi, L., Paternoster, M., Cammarata, M., Bakkar, S., and Miccoli, P. (2025). Levothyroxine therapy in thyroidectomized patients: Ongoing challenges and controversies. Front. Endocrinol., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2025.1582734"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1111\/cen.14998","article-title":"Adequacy of thyroid hormone replacement for people with hypothyroidism in real-world settings: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies","volume":"100","author":"Efthymiadis","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1097\/MED.0000000000000755","article-title":"Under and overtreatment with thyroid hormone replacement during pregnancy","volume":"29","author":"Peng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kanazawa, K., Inaba, T., Koga, S., and Kuwabara, K. (2023). Clinical insights of pregnancy management, adrenal insufficiency as a possible cause of elevated TSH: A pilot study of case series. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth, 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12884-023-06015-4"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, L., Long, H., Zhang, P., Liu, B., Li, S., Sun, R., Diao, T., and Li, F. (2024). Development and characterization of a novel injectable thyroid extracellular matrix hydrogel for enhanced thyroid tissue engineering applications. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fbioe.2024.1481295"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Heim, M., Nixon, I.J., Emmerson, E., and Callanan, A. (2022). From hormone replacement therapy to regenerative scaffolds: A review of current and novel primary hypothyroidism therapeutics. Front. Endocrinol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2022.997288"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mooradian, A.D., and Haas, M.J. (2025). Role of Thyroid Hormone in Neurodegenerative Disorders of Older People. Cells, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells14020140"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1186\/s13293-021-00367-2","article-title":"Thyroid hormone: Sex-dependent role in nervous system regulation and disease","volume":"12","author":"Baksi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Biol. Sex. Differ."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1038\/s41531-022-00333-8","article-title":"DAT and TH expression marks human Parkinson\u2019s disease in peripheral immune cells","volume":"8","author":"Gopinath","year":"2022","journal-title":"npj Park. Dis."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1283","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-022-01248-1","article-title":"Treating Parkinson\u2019s Disease via Activation of BDNF\/TrkB Signaling Pathways and Inhibition of Delta-Secretase","volume":"19","author":"Kang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105788","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2024.105788","article-title":"The iron maiden: Oligodendroglial metabolic dysfunction in multiple sclerosis and mitochondrial signaling","volume":"164","author":"Emamnejad","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1093","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.26920","article-title":"Pathogenic Potential of Eomesodermin-Expressing T-Helper Cells in Neurodegenerative Diseases","volume":"95","author":"Kanazawa","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4406","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-015-9375-z","article-title":"Thyroid Hormone Potentially Benefits Multiple Sclerosis via Facilitating Remyelination","volume":"53","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e126329","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.126329","article-title":"Myelin repair stimulated by CNS-selective thyroid hormone action","volume":"4","author":"Hartley","year":"2019","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2990.2011.01228.x","article-title":"Functional and molecular evidence of myelin- and neuroprotection by thyroid hormone administration in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis","volume":"38","author":"Lorenzini","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1563","DOI":"10.1093\/hmg\/ddu571","article-title":"Loss of the thyroid hormone-binding protein Crym renders striatal neurons more vulnerable to mutant huntingtin in Huntington\u2019s disease","volume":"24","author":"Francelle","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hum. Mol. Genet."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/0361-9230(89)90039-7","article-title":"Adaptive changes in the central noradrenergic system in monocular deprived rats","volume":"22","author":"Aurich","year":"1989","journal-title":"Brain Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2014.12.021","article-title":"Transferrin and thyroid hormone converge in the control of myelinogenesis","volume":"265","author":"Marziali","year":"2015","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/S0083-6729(05)71004-9","article-title":"Thyroid hormones and brain development","volume":"71","author":"Bernal","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vitam. Horm."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17232","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2713-13.2013","article-title":"Treatment with thyroxine restores myelination and clinical recovery after intraventricular hemorrhage","volume":"33","author":"Vose","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Far\u00edas-Serratos, B.M., Lazcano, I., Villalobos, P., Darras, V.M., and Orozco, A. (2021). Thyroid hormone deficiency during zebrafish development impairs central nervous system myelination. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0256207"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16363","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0407262101","article-title":"Thyroid hormone administration enhances remyelination in chronic demyelinating inflammatory disease","volume":"101","author":"Fernandez","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2008.04.039","article-title":"Thyroid hormones promote differentiation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells and improve remyelination after cuprizone-induced demyelination","volume":"212","author":"Franco","year":"2008","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2826.2011.02181.x","article-title":"Triiodothyronine administration ameliorates the demyelination\/remyelination ratio in a non-human primate model of multiple sclerosis by correcting tissue hypothyroidism","volume":"23","author":"Lorenzini","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1038\/ncpendmet0590","article-title":"Potential therapeutic applications of thyroid hormone analogs","volume":"3","author":"Brenta","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nat. Clin. Pract. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Emamnejad, R., Dass, M., Mahlis, M., Bozkurt, S., Ye, S., Pagnin, M., Theotokis, P., Grigoriadis, N., and Petratos, S. (2022). Thyroid hormone-dependent oligodendroglial cell lineage genomic and non-genomic signaling through integrin receptors. Front. Pharmacol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2022.934971"},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chembiol.2021.07.014","article-title":"TREM2 is thyroid hormone regulated making the TREM2 pathway druggable with ligands for thyroid hormone receptor","volume":"29","author":"Ferrara","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"fcaf415","DOI":"10.1093\/braincomms\/fcaf415","article-title":"Eomesodermin-expressing CD4 Th cells and association with multiple sclerosis progression and brain atrophy","volume":"7","author":"Bongert","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Commun."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuro.2019.07.007","article-title":"The role of zinc, copper, manganese and iron in neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"74","author":"Mezzaroba","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.1089\/thy.2020.0071","article-title":"Thyroid Hormone Analogues: An Update","volume":"30","author":"Zucchi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5496891","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/5496891","article-title":"Oligodendroglial Lineage Cells in Thyroid Hormone-Deprived Conditions","volume":"2019","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Stem Cells Int."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2017.02.018","article-title":"Role of thyroid hormone in hepatic gene regulation, chromatin remodeling, and autophagy","volume":"458","author":"Singh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1007\/s12020-024-03967-1","article-title":"Hormonal orchestra: Mastering mitochondria\u2019s role in health and disease","volume":"86","author":"AlQuwaie","year":"2024","journal-title":"Endocrine"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alvarez-Salas, E., Garc\u00eda-Luna, C., and de Gortari, P. (2023). New Efforts to Demonstrate the Successful Use of TRH as a Therapeutic Agent. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 24.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms241311047"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, F., Zhao, J., Du, J., Li, J., Wang, P., Yi, Z., Feng, T., and Wan, Z. (2025). Exploring the relationships between clinical manifestations and sex hormones, thyroid hormones, and menstrual factors in female Parkinson\u2019s disease patients. Front. Med., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmed.2025.1573768"},{"key":"ref_175","first-page":"990","article-title":"Thyroid Hormone Analogs: Recent Developments","volume":"35","author":"Freund","year":"2025","journal-title":"Thyroid"},{"key":"ref_176","first-page":"e250092","article-title":"Extreme resistance to thyroid hormone caused by a novel mosaic thyroid hormone receptor beta mutation","volume":"14","author":"Liao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Eur. Thyroid. J."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70420","DOI":"10.1002\/ctm2.70420","article-title":"YOD1 regulates oxidative damage of dopamine neurons in Parkinson\u2019s disease by deubiquitinating PKM2","volume":"15","author":"Zhao","year":"2025","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Med."}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/16\/2\/229\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,16]],"date-time":"2026-02-16T11:46:06Z","timestamp":1771242366000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/16\/2\/229"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,14]]},"references-count":177,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci16020229"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci16020229","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,14]]}}}