{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,20]],"date-time":"2026-06-20T01:54:44Z","timestamp":1781920484876,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":148,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1771977600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a significant public health concern resulting in physical, cognitive, and behavioral impairments. Emerging evidence highlights a bidirectional relationship between brain injury and gut health, known as the brain\u2013gut axis. This paper provides a comprehensive review of current literature exploring the relationship between TBI and various gastrointestinal (GI) pathologies, examining how brain injuries contribute to GI dysfunction and how gut health influences neurorecovery. Methods: A comprehensive search of peer-reviewed articles was conducted between March and June 2025 using databases including PubMed, Scopus, and Cochrane. Studies from 2010 onwards involving human subjects were screened. Search terms included combinations of \u201ctraumatic brain injury,\u201d \u201cTBI,\u201d and \u201c[gastrointestinal pathology].\u201d Data regarding study design, population, GI outcomes, and proposed mechanisms were analyzed. Results: TBI triggers secondary injury cascades, including neuroinflammation, dysautonomia, and gut microbiome dysbiosis. The review identifies a wide spectrum of TBI-associated GI disorders, including dysphagia, esophageal disorders, gastric disorders, and intestinal disorders. Bowel dysfunction, manifesting as constipation or incontinence, is prevalent due to neurogenic factors and cognitive impairments. Additionally, metabolic dysregulation following TBI leads to malnutrition, hyperglycemia, and hypoglycemia, all of which impact morbidity. Conclusions: The GI system is integrally connected to TBI recovery through immune modulation and nutrient absorption. Dysfunction within the brain\u2013gut axis, specifically altered motility, permeability, and inflammation, contributes to secondary brain injury and impedes neurological outcomes. Clinical assessment of GI dysfunction should be integrated into routine TBI care. Therapeutic strategies, including early enteral nutrition, are essential to optimize recovery and reduce systemic inflammation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci16030254","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T10:59:16Z","timestamp":1772017156000},"page":"254","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["The Effect of Traumatic Brain Injury on the Gastrointestinal System: A Comprehensive Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Ruhi K.","family":"Shah","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine, Nutley, NJ 07110, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Justin J.","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine, Nutley, NJ 07110, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tejaswi","family":"Makkapati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, JFK Johnson Rehabilitation Institute at Hackensack Meridian Health, Edison, NJ 08820, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arielle A.","family":"Berkowitz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, JFK Johnson Rehabilitation Institute at Hackensack Meridian Health, Edison, NJ 08820, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brian D.","family":"Greenwald","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, JFK Johnson Rehabilitation Institute at Hackensack Meridian Health, Edison, NJ 08820, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johnson, L.W., and Diaz, I. (2023). Exploring the Social Determinants of Health and Health Disparities in Traumatic Brain Injury: A Scoping Review. Brain Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13050707"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Health and Medicine Division, Board on Health Care Services, Board on Health Sciences Policy, Committee on Accelerating Progress in Traumatic Brain Injury Research and Care, Matney, C., Bowman, K., and Berwick, D. (2022). The Scope and Burden of Traumatic Brain Injury. Traumatic Brain Injury: A Roadmap for Accelerating Progress, National Academies Press."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Ginsburg, J., and Smith, T. (2025). Traumatic Brain Injury. StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2017.05.009","article-title":"The Bidirectional Gut-Brain-Microbiota Axis as a Potential Nexus between Traumatic Brain Injury, Inflammation, and Disease","volume":"66","author":"Sundman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain. Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, D., Chen, P., Xi, Y., and Sheng, J. (2023). From Trash to Treasure: The Role of Bacterial Extracellular Vesicles in Gut Health and Disease. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1274295"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Benameur, T., Hasan, A., Toufig, H., Panaro, M.A., Filannino, F.M., and Porro, C. (2025). Microbiota-Derived Extracellular Vesicles as Potential Mediators of Gut\u2013Brain Communication in Traumatic Brain Injury: Mechanisms, Biomarkers, and Therapeutic Implications. Biomolecules, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom15101398"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, X., Zhang, L., Cao, Y., Jia, H., Li, X., Li, F., Zhang, S., and Zhang, J. (2023). Neuroinflammation of Traumatic Brain Injury: Roles of Extracellular Vesicles. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.1088827"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(17)30259-4","article-title":"Paroxysmal Sympathetic Hyperactivity: The Storm after Acute Brain Injury","volume":"16","author":"Meyfroidt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, Z., Wang, S., Wu, C., Cao, Y., Gu, Q., Zhu, Y., Zhang, W., and Hu, W. (2022). Gut Microbiota Dysbiosis after Traumatic Brain Injury Contributes to Persistent Microglial Activation Associated with Upregulated Lyz2 and Shifted Tryptophan Metabolic Phenotype. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14173467"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"772","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2022.0356","article-title":"Innate and Peripheral Immune Alterations after Traumatic Brain Injury Are Regulated in a Gut Microbiota-Dependent Manner in Mice","volume":"40","author":"Celorrio","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110883","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresbull.2024.110883","article-title":"Potential Effects of the Most Prescribed Drugs on the Microbiota-Gut-Brain-Axis: A Review","volume":"207","author":"Garg","year":"2024","journal-title":"Brain Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pyles, R.B., Miller, A.L., Urban, R.J., Sheffield-Moore, M., Wright, T.J., Maxwell, C.A., Randolph, K.M., Danesi, C.P., McGovern, K.A., and Vargas, J. (2024). The Altered TBI Fecal Microbiome Is Stable and Functionally Distinct. Front. Mol. Neurosci., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2024.1341808"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.15892","article-title":"The Role of the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis in Long-Term Neurodegenerative Processes Following Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"57","author":"Chiu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v25.i5.552","article-title":"Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders and Gut-Brain Axis: What Does the Future Hold?","volume":"25","author":"Mukhtar","year":"2019","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1","article-title":"Cognitive Sequelae of Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"37","author":"Rabinowitz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Clin."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.3233\/NRE-192893","article-title":"Factors Affecting Cognition and Emotion in Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"46","author":"Kwak","year":"2020","journal-title":"NeuroRehabilitation"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wood, R.L., and Worthington, A. (2017). Neurobehavioral Abnormalities Associated with Executive Dysfunction after Traumatic Brain Injury. Front. Behav. Neurosci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2017.00195"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-9452(08)70109-6","article-title":"Cognitive Structure of Executive Deficits in Frontally Lesioned Head Trauma Patients Performing Activities of Daily Living","volume":"39","author":"Fortin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3137","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/aww241","article-title":"Disconnection between the Default Mode Network and Medial Temporal Lobes in Post-Traumatic Amnesia","volume":"139","author":"Grover","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-017-0762-x","article-title":"Pathophysiology and Treatment of Memory Dysfunction After Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"17","author":"Paterno","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Neurol. Neurosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1108","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awh135","article-title":"Impulsivity, Time Perception, Emotion and Reinforcement Sensitivity in Patients with Orbitofrontal Cortex Lesions","volume":"127","author":"Berlin","year":"2004","journal-title":"Brain J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5361","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0097-22.2022","article-title":"Selective Inhibitory Circuit Dysfunction after Chronic Frontal Lobe Contusion","volume":"42","author":"Nolan","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2023.08.004","article-title":"Traumatic Brain Injury-Induced Inflammatory Changes in the Olfactory Bulb Disrupt Neuronal Networks Leading to Olfactory Dysfunction","volume":"114","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain. Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"240","article-title":"Smell and Taste Disorders in Primary Care","volume":"108","author":"Savard","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. Fam. Physician"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2823","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2023.05.001","article-title":"The Enteric Nervous System Relays Psychological Stress to Intestinal Inflammation","volume":"186","author":"Schneider","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"VA\/DoD, T.L.G. (2026, February 20). VA\/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management and Rehabilitation of Post-Acute Mild Traumatic Brain Injury, Available online: https:\/\/www.healthquality.va.gov\/guidelines\/rehab\/mtbi\/."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(15)00068-X","article-title":"Sleep-Wake Disturbances after Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"14","author":"Ouellet","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1249","DOI":"10.5665\/sleep.5844","article-title":"Damage to Arousal-Promoting Brainstem Neurons with Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"39","author":"Valko","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kurtz, P., and Rocha, E.E.M. (2020). Nutrition Therapy, Glucose Control, and Brain Metabolism in Traumatic Brain Injury: A Multimodal Monitoring Approach. Front. Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2020.00190"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1111\/aas.14166","article-title":"Glycaemic Control for Patients with Severe Acute Brain Injury: Protocol for a Systematic Review","volume":"67","author":"Fenger","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1439","DOI":"10.1080\/1028415X.2024.2342152","article-title":"Analysis of Risk Factors and Development of Predictive Model for Malnutrition in Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"27","author":"Cai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nutr. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"44","article-title":"Neurogenic Oropharyngeal Dysphagia: Concept, Clinical Pathophysiology, and Therapeutics","volume":"27","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arch. Neurocienc."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nieto, K., Ang, D., and Liu, H. (2022). Dysphagia among Geriatric Trauma Patients: A Population-Based Study. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0262623"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1080\/02699052.2024.2402422","article-title":"Impact of Early Swallowing Rehabilitation on Oral Feeding in Patients with Dysphagia Following Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"39","author":"Ghoreishi","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Inj."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e053244","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2021-053244","article-title":"Scoping Review to Identify and Map Non-Pharmacological, Non-Surgical Treatments for Dysphagia Following Moderate-to-Severe Acquired Brain Injury","volume":"11","author":"Eskildsen","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"900","DOI":"10.23736\/S1973-9087.21.06716-2","article-title":"State of the Evidence about Rehabilitation Interventions in Patients with Dysphagia","volume":"57","author":"Bai","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Phys. Rehabil. Med."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2016.02.009","article-title":"Energy and Protein Deficits throughout Hospitalization in Patients Admitted with a Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"35","author":"Chapple","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shestopalov, A.E., Yakovleva, A.V., Yadgarov, M.Y., Sergeev, I.V., and Kuzovlev, A.N. (2024). Prevalence and Impact of Malnutrition Risk on Outcomes in Critically Ill Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury and Stroke: A Retrospective Cohort Study Using Electronic Health Records. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16152396"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e16755","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000016755","article-title":"Recovery of Malnutrition in a Patient with Severe Brain Injury Outcomes: A Case Report","volume":"98","author":"Caliri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nut.2010.05.004","article-title":"Nutritional Support in Head Injury","volume":"27","author":"Vizzini","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nutrition"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"American College of Surgeons (2026, February 20). Best Practice Guidelines: The Management of Traumatic Brain Injury. Available online: https:\/\/www.facs.org\/media\/vgfgjpfk\/best-practices-guidelines-traumatic-brain-injury.pdf."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2011.1801","article-title":"Early Enteral Nutrition and Clinical Outcomes of Severe Traumatic Brain Injury Patients in Acute Stage: A Multi-Center Cohort Study","volume":"29","author":"Chiang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.4103\/2152-7806.93858","article-title":"The Prognostic Significance of the Timing of Total Enteral Feeding in Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"3","author":"Dhandapani","year":"2012","journal-title":"Surg. Neurol. Int."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1177\/0148607110397878","article-title":"Effect of Early Compared with Delayed Enteral Nutrition on Endocrine Function in Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury: An Open-Labeled Randomized Trial","volume":"36","author":"Chourdakis","year":"2012","journal-title":"JPEN J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1051","DOI":"10.1093\/nutrit\/nuac099","article-title":"Progress in Research on the Role of Clinical Nutrition in Treating Traumatic Brain Injury Affecting the Neurovascular Unit","volume":"81","author":"Lai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"126","article-title":"Nutritional and Metabolic Supplementation for the Injured Brain: An Update","volume":"25","author":"Quintard","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e10589","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.10589","article-title":"Hyperglycemia in Severe Traumatic Brain Injury Patients and Its Association with Thirty-Day Mortality: A Prospective Observational Cohort Study in Uganda","volume":"9","author":"Matovu","year":"2021","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2670","DOI":"10.1007\/s00268-021-06190-5","article-title":"Patterns and Effects of Admission Hyperglycemia and Inflammatory Response in Trauma Patients: A Prospective Clinical Study","volume":"45","author":"Asim","year":"2021","journal-title":"World J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tsai, Y.-C., Wu, S.-C., Hsieh, T.-M., Liu, H.-T., Huang, C.-Y., Chou, S.-E., Su, W.-T., Hsu, S.-Y., and Hsieh, C.-H. (2020). Association of Stress-Induced Hyperglycemia and Diabetic Hyperglycemia with Mortality in Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury: Analysis of a Propensity Score-Matched Population. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17124266"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71052","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.11958","article-title":"Review: Traumatic Brain Injury and Hyperglycemia, a Potentially Modifiable Risk Factor","volume":"7","author":"Shi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108504","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clineuro.2024.108504","article-title":"A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on Glycemic Control in Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"245","author":"Duran","year":"2024","journal-title":"Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"889","DOI":"10.1177\/0885066618801748","article-title":"Don\u2019t Sugar Coat It: Glycemic Control in the Intensive Care Unit","volume":"34","author":"Stoudt","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1007\/s40264-015-0339-z","article-title":"Drug-Induced Hyperglycaemia and Diabetes","volume":"38","author":"Fathallah","year":"2015","journal-title":"Drug Saf."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-017-1883-y","article-title":"Glycaemic Control Targets after Traumatic Brain Injury: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"22","author":"Hermanides","year":"2018","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"NICE-SUGAR Study Investigators, Finfer, S., Chittock, D.R., Su, S.Y.-S., Blair, D., Foster, D., Dhingra, V., Bellomo, R., Cook, D., and Dodek, P. (2009). Intensive versus Conventional Glucose Control in Critically Ill Patients. N. Engl. J. Med., 360, 1283\u20131297.","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0810625"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1103","DOI":"10.3109\/02699052.2016.1167244","article-title":"Comprehensive Oral-Health Assessment of Individuals with Acquired Brain-Injury in Neuro-Rehabilitation Setting","volume":"30","author":"Kothari","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain Inj."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1264","DOI":"10.1080\/02699052.2020.1795720","article-title":"Oral Health: Something to Worry about in Individuals with Acquired Brain Injury?","volume":"34","author":"Kothari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Inj."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, Y., Hou, C., Wang, C., Chen, R., Zhu, Y., Zhou, Q., Shao, B., Huang, Y., and Li, S. (2024). Research Progress on Digestive Disorders Following Traumatic Brain Injury. Front. Immunol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2024.1524495"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2024.0953","article-title":"Common Oral Conditions: A Review","volume":"331","author":"Stoopler","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1080\/02699052.2017.1407960","article-title":"Prevalence and Association of Oral Candidiasis with Dysphagia in Individuals with Acquired Brain Injury","volume":"32","author":"Odgaard","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain Inj."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2019.04.034","article-title":"Infections after a Traumatic Brain Injury: The Complex Interplay between the Immune and Neurological Systems","volume":"79","author":"Sharma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2023.0453","article-title":"Experimental Models of Hospital-Acquired Infections After Traumatic Brain Injury: Challenges and Opportunities","volume":"41","author":"Gandasasmita","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1093\/cid\/civ933","article-title":"Clinical Practice Guideline for the Management of Candidiasis: 2016 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America","volume":"62","author":"Pappas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2670","DOI":"10.1080\/21505594.2021.1982373","article-title":"Pathogenesis and Virulence of Herpes Simplex Virus","volume":"12","author":"Zhu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virulence"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.202110-2324OC","article-title":"Monocyte Signature Associated with Herpes Simplex Virus Reactivation and Neurological Recovery after Brain Injury","volume":"206","author":"Chaumette","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70504","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.70504","article-title":"Unraveling the Gut-Brain-Immune Interplay in Herpes Simplex Virus-Associated Neurodegeneration","volume":"97","author":"Bautista","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1007\/s11011-025-01658-y","article-title":"Association between Traumatic Brain Injury and Risk of Developing Infections in the Central Nervous System and Periphery","volume":"40","author":"Faller","year":"2025","journal-title":"Metab. Brain Dis."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.rr7004a1","article-title":"Sexually Transmitted Infections Treatment Guidelines, 2021","volume":"70","author":"Workowski","year":"2021","journal-title":"MMWR Recomm. Rep."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1708714","article-title":"Acute Viral Encephalitis","volume":"379","author":"Tyler","year":"2018","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_70","first-page":"2628","article-title":"Sialorrhea: A Management Challenge","volume":"69","author":"Hockstein","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. Fam. Physician"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1756286419888601","DOI":"10.1177\/1756286419888601","article-title":"The Burden of Sialorrhoea in Chronic Neurological Conditions: Current Treatment Options and the Role of incobotulinumtoxinA (Xeomin\u00ae)","volume":"12","author":"Morgante","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Neurol. Disord."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2008-1040993","article-title":"Swallowing Problems in Adults with Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"16","author":"Cherney","year":"1996","journal-title":"Semin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chest.2023.03.011","article-title":"Respiratory Management of Patients With Neuromuscular Weakness: An American College of Chest Physicians Clinical Practice Guideline and Expert Panel Report","volume":"164","author":"Khan","year":"2023","journal-title":"CHEST"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1080\/02699052.2024.2444536","article-title":"The Effectiveness and Safety of Botulinum Toxin Treatment for Sialorrhea Due to Severe Brain Injury","volume":"39","author":"Clark","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Inj."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e143777","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI143777","article-title":"Brain-Gut Axis Dysfunction in the Pathogenesis of Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"131","author":"Hanscom","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1097\/SHK.0000000000002082","article-title":"Traumatic Brain Injury-Induced Inflammation and Gastrointestinal Motility Dysfunction","volume":"59","author":"Cannon","year":"2023","journal-title":"Shock"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1111\/nmo.12121","article-title":"Effects of Traumatic Brain Injury on Intestinal Contractility","volume":"25","author":"Olsen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurogastroenterol. Motil."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"28","article-title":"Traumatic Brain Injury and the Effect on the Brain-Gut Axis","volume":"21","author":"Kharrazian","year":"2015","journal-title":"Altern. Ther. Health Med."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1207","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMcp2114026","article-title":"Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease","volume":"387","author":"Fass","year":"2022","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.14309\/ajg.0000000000001538","article-title":"ACG Clinical Guideline: Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease","volume":"117","author":"Katz","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"984","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2022.01.025","article-title":"AGA Clinical Practice Update on the Personalized Approach to the Evaluation and Management of GERD: Expert Review","volume":"20","author":"Yadlapati","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"249","article-title":"Acute Gastroduodenal Lesions in Head Injury. An Endoscopic Study","volume":"68","author":"Kamada","year":"1977","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1089\/neu.2020.7526","article-title":"Traumatic Brain Injury Induces Gastrointestinal Dysfunction and Dysbiosis of Gut Microbiota Accompanied by Alterations of Bile Acid Profile","volume":"39","author":"You","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neurotrauma"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1097\/TA.0000000000004246","article-title":"Ccr2-Dependent Monocytes Exacerbate Intestinal Inflammation and Modulate Gut Serotonergic Signaling Following Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"97","author":"Raouf","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Trauma Acute Care Surg."},{"key":"ref_85","unstructured":"Siddiqui, A.H., Farooq, U., and Siddiqui, F. (2025). Curling Ulcer. StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(24)00155-7","article-title":"Peptic Ulcer Disease","volume":"404","author":"Almadi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1097\/ANA.0000000000000918","article-title":"A Reappraisal of the Pathophysiology of Cushing Ulcer: A Narrative Review","volume":"36","author":"Kumaria","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg. Anesthesiol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.4103\/1793-5482.154976","article-title":"Cushing\u2019s Ulcer: Further Reflections","volume":"10","author":"Kemp","year":"2015","journal-title":"Asian J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1832","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2024.19094","article-title":"Peptic Ulcer Disease: A Review","volume":"332","author":"Vakil","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2018.12.009","article-title":"Diagnosis and Treatment of Peptic Ulcer Disease","volume":"132","author":"Kavitt","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.14309\/ajg.0000000000001245","article-title":"ACG Clinical Guideline: Upper Gastrointestinal and Ulcer Bleeding","volume":"116","author":"Laine","year":"2021","journal-title":"Off. J. Am. Coll. Gastroenterol. ACG"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1007\/s12028-023-01678-5","article-title":"Gastrointestinal Motility Disorders Correlate with Intracranial Bleeding, Opioid Use, and Brainstem Edema in Neurosurgical Patients","volume":"39","author":"Kunovac","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neurocrit. Care"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.3171\/jns.1991.74.5.0738","article-title":"Altered Gastric Emptying in the Head-Injured Patient: Relationship to Feeding Intolerance","volume":"74","author":"Ott","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1197","DOI":"10.14309\/ajg.0000000000001874","article-title":"ACG Clinical Guideline: Gastroparesis","volume":"117","author":"Camilleri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cgh.2021.10.038","article-title":"AGA Clinical Practice Update on Management of Medically Refractory Gastroparesis: Expert Review","volume":"20","author":"Lacy","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8211","DOI":"10.1007\/s00210-024-03178-5","article-title":"Comprehensive Insights on Treatment Modalities with Conventional and Herbal Drugs for the Treatment of Duodenal Ulcers","volume":"397","author":"Hameed","year":"2024","journal-title":"Naunyn-Schmiedeberg\u2019s Arch. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.14309\/ajg.0000000000000501","article-title":"ACG Clinical Guideline: Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth","volume":"115","author":"Pimentel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, W., Yuan, Q., Li, Z., Du, Z., Wu, G., Yu, J., and Hu, J. (2022). Translocation and Dissemination of Gut Bacteria after Severe Traumatic Brain Injury. Microorganisms, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms10102082"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1097\/MOG.0000000000000971","article-title":"Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth: Current Update","volume":"39","author":"Zafar","year":"2023","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jocn.2020.07.019","article-title":"Traumatic Brain Injury Causing Intestinal Dysfunction: A Review","volume":"79","author":"Iftikhar","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.5435\/JAAOS-D-14-00162","article-title":"Paralytic Ileus in the Orthopaedic Patient","volume":"23","author":"Daniels","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Orthop. Surg."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233.e1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajem.2022.02.018","article-title":"Point-of-Care Ultrasound Findings in the Diagnosis and Management of Superior Mesenteric Artery (SMA) Syndrome","volume":"55","author":"Le","year":"2022","journal-title":"Am. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3000605231157198","DOI":"10.1177\/03000605231157198","article-title":"Nursing of a Lactating Patient with Superior Mesenteric Artery Syndrome: A Case Report","volume":"51","author":"Jin","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Int. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2029","DOI":"10.1007\/s00464-020-07598-1","article-title":"SMA Syndrome: Management Perspective with Laparoscopic Duodenojejunostomy and Long-Term Results","volume":"35","author":"Jain","year":"2021","journal-title":"Surg. Endosc."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3188","DOI":"10.1007\/s00261-019-02066-4","article-title":"Superior Mesenteric Artery Syndrome: A Radiographic Review","volume":"44","author":"Warncke","year":"2019","journal-title":"Abdom. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1798","DOI":"10.1007\/s00268-020-05413-5","article-title":"Minimally Invasive Surgical Approach for the Treatment of Superior Mesenteric Artery Syndrome: Long-Term Outcomes","volume":"44","author":"Cienfuegos","year":"2020","journal-title":"World J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-022-00381-7","article-title":"Faecal Incontinence in Adults","volume":"8","author":"Bharucha","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1053\/apmr.2003.50095","article-title":"Incidence, Risk Factors, and Outcomes of Fecal Incontinence after Acute Brain Injury: Findings from the Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems National Database","volume":"84","author":"Marwitz","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1080\/02699050802304714","article-title":"Medical Complications, Physical Function and Communication Skills in Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury: A Single Centre 5-Year Experience","volume":"22","author":"Safaz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Brain Inj."},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"(2026, January 07). ASCRS Management of Fecal Incontinence Guideline Summary\u2014Guideline Central. Available online: https:\/\/www.guidelinecentral.com\/guideline\/9290."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zandalasini, M., Pelizzari, L., Ciardi, G., Giraudo, D., Guasconi, M., Paravati, S., Lamberti, G., and Frizziero, A. (2023). Bowel Dysfunctions after Acquired Brain Injury: A Scoping Review. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 17.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2023.1146054"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1038\/ajg.2014.303","article-title":"Treatment of Fecal Incontinence: State of the Science Summary for the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases Workshop","volume":"110","author":"Whitehead","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_113","first-page":"661","article-title":"Management of Neurogenic Bowel Dysfunction","volume":"47","author":"Paris","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Phys. Rehabil. Med."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9216","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v19.i48.9216","article-title":"Current Management of Fecal Incontinence: Choosing amongst Treatment Options to Optimize Outcomes","volume":"19","author":"Wexner","year":"2013","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Gastroenterological Association, Bharucha, A.E., Dorn, S.D., Lembo, A., and Pressman, A. (2013). American Gastroenterological Association Medical Position Statement on Constipation. Gastroenterology, 144, 211\u2013217.","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2012.10.029"},{"key":"ref_116","first-page":"299","article-title":"Diagnostic Approach to Chronic Constipation in Adults","volume":"84","author":"Jamshed","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. Fam. Physician"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1675","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)31548-8","article-title":"Irritable Bowel Syndrome","volume":"396","author":"Ford","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.14309\/ajg.0000000000001036","article-title":"ACG Clinical Guideline: Management of Irritable Bowel Syndrome","volume":"116","author":"Lacy","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1737","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2021.12.248","article-title":"AGA Clinical Practice Update on the Role of Diet in Irritable Bowel Syndrome: Expert Review","volume":"162","author":"Chey","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gtc.2021.03.006","article-title":"Behavioral Strategies for Irritable Bowel Syndrome: Brain-Gut or Gut-Brain?","volume":"50","author":"Jagielski","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. Clin."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-019-03739-0","article-title":"Intestinal Barrier Dysfunction Following Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"40","author":"Pan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1038\/ajg.2014.395","article-title":"ACG Clinical Guideline: Epidemiology, Risk Factors, Patterns of Presentation, Diagnosis, and Management of Colon Ischemia (CI)","volume":"110","author":"Brandt","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hall, R., Patel, K., Poullis, A., Pollok, R., and Honap, S. (2024). Separating Infectious Proctitis from Inflammatory Bowel Disease-A Common Clinical Conundrum. Microorganisms, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms12122395"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-024-03118-3","article-title":"Dysregulated Brain-Gut Axis in the Setting of Traumatic Brain Injury: Review of Mechanisms and Anti-Inflammatory Pharmacotherapies","volume":"21","author":"Raouf","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1097\/TA.0000000000004585","article-title":"Diagnosis and Management of Acute Mesenteric Ischemia: What You Need to Know","volume":"99","author":"Tolonen","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Trauma Acute Care Surg."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2018.12.009","article-title":"AGA Clinical Practice Guidelines on the Management of Mild-to-Moderate Ulcerative Colitis","volume":"156","author":"Ko","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1111\/apt.17666","article-title":"Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis: Medical Therapies for Treatment of Ulcerative Proctitis","volume":"58","author":"Aruljothy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1097\/DCR.0000000000002047","article-title":"The American Society of Colon and Rectal Surgeons Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Management of Clostridioides Difficile Infection","volume":"64","author":"Poylin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Dis. Colon Rectum"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-019-03539-6","article-title":"Clostridium Difficile Infection: Review","volume":"38","author":"Czepiel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1539","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra1403772","article-title":"Clostridium Difficile Infection","volume":"372","author":"Leffler","year":"2015","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2018.09.004","article-title":"Clostridioides Difficile","volume":"26","author":"Sandhu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_132","first-page":"168","article-title":"Clostridioides Difficile Infection: Update on Management","volume":"101","author":"Mounsey","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. Fam. Physician"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1007\/s12028-016-0254-x","article-title":"Risk of Resistant Organisms and Clostridium Difficile with Prolonged Systemic Antibiotic Prophylaxis for Central Nervous System Devices","volume":"25","author":"Chauv","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurocrit. Care"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1007\/s12028-010-9374-x","article-title":"Clostridium Difficile-Associated Disease Acquired in the Neurocritical Care Unit","volume":"13","author":"Musa","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurocrit. Care"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1755","DOI":"10.1007\/s11011-018-0287-2","article-title":"Incidence of Diarrhea and Associated Risk Factors in Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury and Enteral Nutrition","volume":"33","author":"Vieira","year":"2018","journal-title":"Metab. Brain Dis."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.14309\/ajg.0000000000002645","article-title":"American College of Gastroenterology Guidelines: Management of Acute Pancreatitis","volume":"119","author":"Tenner","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1096","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2018.01.032","article-title":"American Gastroenterological Association Institute Guideline on Initial Management of Acute Pancreatitis","volume":"154","author":"Crockett","year":"2018","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1007\/s12028-009-9265-1","article-title":"Relationship between Increases in Pancreatic Enzymes and Cerebral Events in Children after Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"11","author":"Adelson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neurocrit. Care"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Song, Y., and Lee, S.-H. (2024). Recent Treatment Strategies for Acute Pancreatitis. J. Clin. Med., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm13040978"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1251","DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-022-01766-4","article-title":"Acute Pancreatitis: Diagnosis and Treatment","volume":"82","author":"Szatmary","year":"2022","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e11524","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2022.e11524","article-title":"Acute Acalculous Cholecystitis in Hospitalized Patients in Intensive Care Unit: Study of 5 Cases","volume":"8","author":"Mossaab","year":"2022","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2881","DOI":"10.1007\/s00261-024-04691-0","article-title":"Acalculous Cholecystitis- an Imaging and Therapeutic Update","volume":"50","author":"Morgan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Abdom. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1007\/s11910-025-01410-0","article-title":"Traumatic Brain Injury and Gut Microbiome: The Role of the Gut-Brain Axis in Neurodegenerative Processes","volume":"25","author":"Lin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Curr. Neurol. Neurosci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yuan, B., Lu, X.-J., and Wu, Q. (2021). Gut Microbiota and Acute Central Nervous System Injury: A New Target for Therapeutic Intervention. Front. Immunol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.800796"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rice, M.W., Pandya, J.D., and Shear, D.A. (2019). Gut Microbiota as a Therapeutic Target to Ameliorate the Biochemical, Neuroanatomical, and Behavioral Effects of Traumatic Brain Injuries. Front. Neurol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2019.00875"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cotoia, A., Charitos, I.A., Corriero, A., Tamburrano, S., and Cinnella, G. (2024). The Role of Macronutrients and Gut Microbiota in Neuroinflammation Post-Traumatic Brain Injury: A Narrative Review. Nutrients, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu16244359"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krakovski, M.A., Arora, N., Jain, S., Glover, J., Dombrowski, K., Hernandez, B., Yadav, H., and Sarma, A.K. (2022). Diet-Microbiome-Gut-Brain Nexus in Acute and Chronic Brain Injury. Front. Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2022.1002266"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2020.147225","article-title":"The Brain-Gut Axis: A Prime Therapeutic Target in Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"1753","author":"Weaver","year":"2021","journal-title":"Brain Res."}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/16\/3\/254\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T11:24:12Z","timestamp":1772018652000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/16\/3\/254"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]]},"references-count":148,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci16030254"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci16030254","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]]}}}