{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]],"date-time":"2026-03-17T16:10:25Z","timestamp":1773763825793,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":69,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]],"date-time":"2026-03-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773705600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: Chronic alcohol use accelerates biological and cognitive aging, yet it remains unclear how cognitive aging progresses during abstinence in alcohol use disorder (AUD). It is also unknown to what extent this follows models such as accelerated aging or the age-related decline as proposed by the vulnerability hypothesis. This study examined age-related changes and cognitive recovery during abstinence in patients with AUD. Methods: A total of 197 clinically admitted patients, referred for detoxification and extensive neuropsychological examination, were included. Neuropsychological testing was administered in the second and sixth week of admission using well-normed instruments. Using both multi-assessment and cross-sectional data, relationships between age and normed cognitive outcome scores were examined. Results: After six weeks of abstinence, age-related deviations were observed for perceptual reasoning (PRI), verbal comprehension (VCI), and short-term memory (SMI) but not for ten other cognitive indices. During admission, age significantly influenced the change in belonging to a specific recovery category. Each additional year of age reduced the odds of showing no cognitive impairment by 5% and reduced the odds of cognitive recovery by approximately 4%, compared to non-improvers. Conclusions: Age-related influences appear limited to specific cognitive functions and do not follow a uniform or easily interpretable pattern. Perceptual reasoning seems negatively affected after age 60 for participants with six weeks of abstinence. Older participants showed a reduced likelihood of cognitive recovery and a reduced likelihood of having no cognitive problems at all. The findings do not support accelerated aging and are still too weak to be considered evidence for the vulnerability hypothesis. Implications for future research are discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci16030320","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]],"date-time":"2026-03-17T14:03:27Z","timestamp":1773756207000},"page":"320","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Cognitive Functioning in Abstinent Patients with Alcohol Use Disorder: Exploring Evidence for Premature Aging"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Jeroen","family":"Staudt","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Tactus Institute for Addiction Care, 7418 ET Deventer, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, 6500 HD Nijmegen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yvonne C. M.","family":"Rensen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, 6500 HD Nijmegen, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Centre of Excellence for Korsakoff and Alcohol Related Cognitive Disorders, Vincent van Gogh Institute for Psychiatry, 5803 AC Venray, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4418-7156","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hein A. De","family":"Haan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tactus Institute for Addiction Care, 7418 ET Deventer, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Forensic Psychiatry Department de Boog, GGNet, 7231 PA Warnsveld, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9311-9013","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos I. M.","family":"Egger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, 6500 HD Nijmegen, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Centre of Excellence for Korsakoff and Alcohol Related Cognitive Disorders, Vincent van Gogh Institute for Psychiatry, 5803 AC Venray, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Centre of Excellence for Neuropsychiatry, Vincent van Gogh Institute for Psychiatry, 5803 DN Venray, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1467-7808","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Boukje A. G.","family":"Dijkstra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nijmegen Institute for Scientist Practitioners in Addiction, Radboud University, 6503 GK Nijmegen, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Novadic-Kentron, Addiction Care Center, 5261 LX Vught, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104093","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drudis.2024.104093","article-title":"Aging and cognitive resilience: Molecular mechanisms as new potential therapeutic targets","volume":"29","author":"Cordeiro","year":"2024","journal-title":"Drug Discov. Today"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alosco, M.L., and Stern, R.A. (2019). Alcohol Use Disorder: Permanent and Transient Effects on the Brain and Neuropsychological Functions. The Oxford Handbook of Adult Cognitive Disorders, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780190664121.013.15"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.35946\/arcr.v44.1.03","article-title":"Alcohol Use Disorder and Dementia: A Review","volume":"44","author":"Zahr","year":"2024","journal-title":"Alcohol Res. Curr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-804281-6.00020-3","article-title":"Aging of the frontal lobe","volume":"Volume 163","author":"Zanto","year":"2019","journal-title":"Handbook of Clinical Neurology"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-017-0037-y","article-title":"Quantitative neurobiological evidence for accelerated brain aging in alcohol dependence","volume":"7","author":"Guggenmos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13446","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.13446","article-title":"Reduced brain network segregation in alcohol use disorder: Associations with neurocognition","volume":"29","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2022.06.036","article-title":"Additive Effects of Stress and Alcohol Exposure on Accelerated Epigenetic Aging in Alcohol Use Disorder","volume":"93","author":"Jung","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13100","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.13100","article-title":"Associations between alcohol use and accelerated biological ageing","volume":"27","author":"Vaher","year":"2022","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1037\/neu0000557","article-title":"Brain-behavior Relations and Effects of Aging and Common Comorbidities in Alcohol Use Disorder: A Review","volume":"33","author":"Sullivan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1097\/00005053-197711000-00006","article-title":"Neuropsychological correlates of chronic alcoholism and aging","volume":"165","author":"Blusewicz","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Nerv. Ment. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/S0899-3289(20)30006-7","article-title":"Memory impairments in alcoholism: Effects of age and education","volume":"1","author":"Harker","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Subst. Abus."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"710","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1984.01790180080010","article-title":"Aging, Abstinence, and Medical Risk Factors in the Prediction of Neuropsychologic Deficit Among Long-term Alcoholics","volume":"41","author":"Grant","year":"1984","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.57.2.257","article-title":"The Premature Aging Hypothesis: Old Before Its Time?","volume":"57","author":"Kramer","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Consult. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"89","article-title":"Alcohol-Related Cognitive Impairments: An Overview of How Alcoholism May Affect the Workings of the Brain","volume":"19","author":"Evert","year":"1995","journal-title":"Alcohol Health Res. World"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.106.1.128","article-title":"Alcoholism, Aging, and Functional Cerebral Asymmetries","volume":"106","author":"Ellis","year":"1989","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4684-4661-6_13","article-title":"Alcohol Consumption and Premature Aging","volume":"Volume 2","author":"Ryan","year":"1984","journal-title":"Recent Developments in Alcoholism"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1093\/alcalc\/agz038","article-title":"Adult-Life Alcohol Consumption and Age-Related Cognitive Decline from Early Adulthood to Late Midlife","volume":"54","author":"Osler","year":"2019","journal-title":"Alcohol Alcohol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000000063","article-title":"Alcohol consumption and cognitive decline in early old age","volume":"82","author":"Sabia","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.1985.tb05555.x","article-title":"Premature Aging in Male Alcoholics: \u201cAccelerated Aging\u201d or \u201cIncreased Vulnerability\u201d?","volume":"9","author":"Noonberg","year":"1985","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1002\/npr2.12395","article-title":"Age-related cognitive decline is accelerated in alcohol use disorder","volume":"43","author":"Kurihara","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2017.12.069","article-title":"Alcohol use disorder and cognitive impairment in old age patients: A 6 months follow-up study in an outpatient unit in Barcelona","volume":"261","author":"Jacas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"101","article-title":"Neuropsychologische diagnostiek en cognitieve functies bij alcoholabstinentie","volume":"55","author":"Walvoort","year":"2013","journal-title":"Tijdschr. Psychiatr."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Powell, A., Sumnall, H., Smith, J., Kuiper, R., and Montgomery, C. (2024). Recovery of neuropsychological function following abstinence from alcohol in adults diagnosed with an alcohol use disorder: Systematic review of longitudinal studies. PLoS ONE, 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0296043"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3254","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhab006","article-title":"Accelerated Aging of the Amygdala in Alcohol Use Disorders: Relevance to the Dark Side of Addiction","volume":"31","author":"Tomasi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cereb. Cortex"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/s11065-013-9228-3","article-title":"A role for cognitive rehabilitation in increasing the effectiveness of treatment for alcohol use disorders","volume":"23","author":"Bates","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2039","DOI":"10.2147\/NDT.S424017","article-title":"Neurocognitive Recovery in Abstinent Patients with Alcohol Use Disorder: A Scoping Review for Associated Factors","volume":"19","author":"Staudt","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-5415.2005.53221.x","article-title":"The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: A brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment","volume":"53","author":"Nasreddine","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1093\/alcalc\/agaa100","article-title":"The course of cognitive performance during inpatient treatment in patients with alcohol use disorder with no, mild or major neurocognitive disorders","volume":"56","author":"Bruijnen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Alcohol Alcohol."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Wechsler, D. (2012). WAIS-IV-NL Nederlandstalige Bewerking, Technische Handleiding [The Dutch Language Version of the WAIS-IV: Technical Manual], Pearson Assessment and Information B.V."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Lichtenberger, E.O., Kaufman, A.S., and Kaufman, N.L. (2012). Essentials of WAIS-IV Assessment, John Wiley & Sons. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1024\/2009.04.03","article-title":"Introducing a new assessment instrument: The Measurements in the Addictions for Triage and Evalution (MATE)","volume":"55","author":"Schippers","year":"2009","journal-title":"SUCHT"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Verhage, F. (1964). Intelligentie en Leeftijd: Onderzoek bij Nederlanders van Twaalf tot Zevenenzeventig Jaar. [Intelligence and Age: Investigations on Dutch Persons from Twelve to Seventy-Seven Years], Van Gorcum."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1007\/s12439-010-0218-0","article-title":"Applicability and validity of the Dutch version of the Montreal cognitive assessment (MoCA-D) in diagnosing MCI","volume":"41","author":"Thissen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Tijdschr. Gerontol. Geriatr."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1080\/23279095.2019.1681996","article-title":"Features and psychometric properties of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment: Review and proposal of a process-based approach version (MoCA-PA)","volume":"28","author":"Burke","year":"2021","journal-title":"Appl. Neuropsychol. Adult"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1080\/13803395.2017.1316970","article-title":"Cognitive screening in substance users: Diagnostic accuracies of the Mini-Mental State Examination, Addenbrooke\u2019s Cognitive Examination\u2013Revised, and Montreal Cognitive Assessment","volume":"40","author":"Ridley","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, American Psychological Association (APA). [4th ed.].","DOI":"10.1037\/t15169-000"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1093\/arclin\/acw007","article-title":"Stability in Test-Usage Practices of Clinical Neuropsychologists in the United States and Canada Over a 10-Year Period: A Follow-Up Survey of INS and NAN Members","volume":"31","author":"Rabin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cullum, C.M., and Larrabee, G.J. (2010). WAIS-IV Use in Neuropsychological Assessment. WAIS-IV Clinical Use and Interpretation, Elsevier Inc.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-375035-8.10006-0"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salthouse, T.A., and Saklofske, D.H. (2010). Do the WAIS-IV Tests Measure the Same Aspects of Cognitive Functioning in Adults Under and Over 65?. WAIS-IV Clinical Use and Interpretation, Elsevier Inc.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-375035-8.10008-4"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intell.2008.08.004","article-title":"CHC theory and the human cognitive abilities project: Standing on the shoulders of the giants of psychometric intelligence research","volume":"37","author":"McGrew","year":"2009","journal-title":"Intelligence"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1037\/a0025614","article-title":"WAIS-IV subtest covariance structure: Conceptual and statistical considerations","volume":"24","author":"Ward","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol. Assess."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1177\/0734282913478030","article-title":"WAIS-IV and Clinical Validation of the Four- and Five-Factor Interpretative Approaches","volume":"31","author":"Weiss","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Psychoeduc. Assess."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Hendriks, M.P.H., Bouman, Z., Kessels, R.P., and Aldenkamp, A.P. (2014). Wechsler Memory Scale\u2014Fourth Edition, Dutch Edition (WMS-IV-NL); Technical Manual, Pearson Assessment."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03193146","article-title":"G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences","volume":"39","author":"Faul","year":"2007","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Methods"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1037\/a0035662","article-title":"Give me just a little more time: Effects of alcohol on the failure and recovery of cognitive control","volume":"123","author":"Bailey","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.5812\/ijem.3505","article-title":"Normality Tests for Statistical Analysis: A Guide for Non-Statisticians","volume":"10","author":"Ghasemi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Hair, J.F., Hult, G.T., Ringle, C., and Sarstedt, M. (2017). A Primer on Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), SAGE Publications, Ltd."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1080\/00031305.1980.10482706","article-title":"We Need Both Exploratory and Confirmatory","volume":"34","author":"Tukey","year":"1980","journal-title":"Am. Stat."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Muijs, D. (2011). Doing Quantitative Research in Education with SPSS, SAGE Publications, Ltd.","DOI":"10.4135\/9781849203241"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1093\/arclin\/acy106","article-title":"Widespread cognitive deficits in alcoholism persistent following prolonged abstinence: An updated meta-analysis of studies that used standardised neuropsychological assessment tools","volume":"35","author":"Crowe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clergue-Duval, V., Coulbault, L., Questel, F., Cab\u00e9, N., Laniepce, A., Delage, C., Boudehent, C., Bloch, V., Segobin, S., and Naassila, M. (2022). Alcohol Withdrawal Is an Oxidative Stress Challenge for the Brain: Does It Pave the Way toward Severe Alcohol-Related Cognitive Impairment?. Antioxidants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11102078"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"321","article-title":"Cardiovascular effects of alcohol consumption","volume":"74","author":"Ancion","year":"2019","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Liege"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2016.15121587","article-title":"Neural predictors of initiating alcohol use during adolescence","volume":"174","author":"Squeglia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1111\/add.13629","article-title":"The potential of neuroimaging for identifying predictors of adolescent alcohol use initiation and misuse","volume":"112","author":"Nymberg","year":"2017","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.irn.2020.11.001","article-title":"Bidirectional causality between addiction and cognitive deficits","volume":"Volume 157","author":"Melugin","year":"2021","journal-title":"International Review of Neurobiology"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"754","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617710000706","article-title":"Selective review of cognitive aging","volume":"16","author":"Salthouse","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-81908-7_12","article-title":"Adolescent Alcohol and the Spectrum of Cognitive Dysfunction in Aging","volume":"Volume 1473","author":"Deak","year":"2025","journal-title":"Effects of Alcohol on the Brain Across the Lifespan; Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1037\/1064-1297.10.3.193","article-title":"Neurocognitive impairment associated with alcohol use disorders: Implications for treatment","volume":"10","author":"Bates","year":"2002","journal-title":"Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1175","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-28735-5","article-title":"Associations between alcohol consumption and gray and white matter volumes in the UK Biobank","volume":"13","author":"Daviet","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"127","article-title":"Alcohol\u2019s effects on brain and behavior","volume":"33","author":"Sullivan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Alcohol Res. Health"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-022-02100-y","article-title":"Age-related differences in the effect of chronic alcohol on cognition and the brain: A systematic review","volume":"12","author":"Kuhns","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cger.2013.07.002","article-title":"Normal cognitive aging","volume":"29","author":"Harada","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Geriatr. Med."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617704104037","article-title":"Effect of age on forward and backward span tasks","volume":"10","author":"Hester","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0035-1555115","article-title":"The Impact of Age on Cognition","volume":"36","author":"Murman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Semin. Hear."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1097\/01.ALC.0000156131.88125.2A","article-title":"Short-term neuropsychological recovery in clients with substance use disorders","volume":"29","author":"Bates","year":"2005","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.30773\/pi.2017.09.27.1","article-title":"Neuropsychological performance in alcohol dependent patients: A one-year longitudinal study","volume":"15","author":"Ioime","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychiatry Investig."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106350","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2020.106350","article-title":"Short-term neuropsychological recovery in alcohol use disorder: A retrospective clinical study","volume":"105","author":"Maillard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Addict. Behav."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"(2012). WAIS-IV-NL Psychometrische Eigenschappen Deel 2 van 3, Pearson Assessment and Information B.V."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-120710-100328","article-title":"Consequences of age-related cognitive declines","volume":"63","author":"Salthouse","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/16\/3\/320\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]],"date-time":"2026-03-17T14:15:43Z","timestamp":1773756943000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/16\/3\/320"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]]},"references-count":69,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci16030320"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci16030320","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]]}}}