{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]],"date-time":"2026-03-19T13:07:18Z","timestamp":1773925638295,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]],"date-time":"2026-03-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773878400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Recent revisions of personality disorder (PD) classifications have moved from categorical diagnoses toward dimensional models, raising renewed questions about the nosological status and clinical utility of borderline personality disorder (BPD). This narrative review traces the development of the borderline construct from early descriptions of patients positioned between neurosis and psychosis, through its theoretical consolidation within the concept of borderline personality organization, to the operationalization of BPD in DSM-III and subsequent diagnostic revisions. A central section summarizes contemporary controversies regarding the validity and utility of BPD features. Arguments for abandoning the diagnosis emphasize the absence of a distinct borderline factor in factor analytic studies, the tendency of the construct to capture fluctuating symptoms and patterns of behaviour rather than stable maladaptive personality traits, the stigmatizing and non-selective use of the label, and the lack of disorder-specific treatment approaches. In contrast, converging evidence supports the view that core borderline symptoms frequently function as markers of general PD pathology and of the severity of impairments in self and interpersonal functioning. The paper integrates the concept of the borderline level of personality functioning, conceptualizing borderline pathology as a dynamic dimension of dysfunction with potential transient regressions, and links this concept to the Level of Personality Functioning (LPF, Criterion A) within the DSM 5 Alternative Model for Personality Disorders (AMPD). Retaining borderline pathology as a dimension may support contemporary PD assessment by offering a clinically recognizable marker of overall dysfunction, a guide for rating severity, an indicator of personality structure and need for psychotherapy, without disrupting continuity with an extensive clinical and research tradition.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci16030326","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]],"date-time":"2026-03-19T08:54:37Z","timestamp":1773910477000},"page":"326","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Fate of Borderline Pathology in Dimensional Classification Systems: A Narrative Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Danilo","family":"Pesic","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Mental Health, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dusica","family":"Lecic-Tosevski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bojana","family":"Pejuskovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Mental Health, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ana","family":"Munjiza-Jovanovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Mental Health, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Olivera","family":"Vukovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Mental Health, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.21156","article-title":"Borderline personality disorder: A comprehensive review of diagnosis and clinical presentation, etiology, treatment, and current controversies","volume":"23","author":"Leichsenring","year":"2024","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1979.01780010023001","article-title":"Crossing the border into borderline personality and borderline schizophrenia: The development of criteria","volume":"36","author":"Spitzer","year":"1979","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1521\/pedi.2012.26.4.551","article-title":"Are DSM-IV-TR Borderline Personality Disorder, ICD-10 Emotionally Unstable Personality Disorder, and CCMD-III Impulsive Personality Disorder Analogous Diagnostic Categories Across Psychiatric Nomenclatures?","volume":"26","author":"Lai","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Personal. Disord."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1186\/s40479-022-00182-0","article-title":"The ICD-11 classification of personality disorders: A European perspective on challenges and opportunities","volume":"9","author":"Bach","year":"2022","journal-title":"Borderline Personal. Disord. Emot. Dysregul."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1080\/21674086.1938.11925367","article-title":"Psychoanalytic investigation of and therapy in the border line group of neuroses","volume":"7","author":"Stern","year":"1938","journal-title":"Psychoanal. Q."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01563119","article-title":"Pseudoneurotic forms of schizophrenia","volume":"23","author":"Hoch","year":"1949","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Q."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1177\/000306517001800102","article-title":"Psychoanalytic considerations of the psychotic character","volume":"18","author":"Frosch","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Am. Psychoanal. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2009.08121825","article-title":"Borderline personality disorder: Ontogeny of a diagnosis","volume":"166","author":"Gunderson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"1","article-title":"Borderline personality disorder: History of the concept","volume":"31","author":"Stone","year":"2005","journal-title":"Med. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1177\/000306516701500309","article-title":"Borderline personality organization","volume":"15","author":"Kernberg","year":"1967","journal-title":"J. Am. Psychoanal. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"243","article-title":"Modern concept of personality disorders: The past rediscovered","volume":"36","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psihijatr. Danas"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"9","article-title":"Borderline level of functioning: Manifestations of splitting in transactions with personality disorders","volume":"27","author":"Divac","year":"1995","journal-title":"Psihijatr. Danas"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Grinker, R.R., Werble, B., and Drye, R. (1968). The Borderline Syndrome. A Behavioral Study of Ego-Functions, Basic Books."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"41","article-title":"Borderline: An adjective in search of a noun","volume":"46","author":"Akiskal","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"117","article-title":"The beginning of wisdom is never calling a patient a borderline; or, the clinical management of immature defenses in the treatment of individuals with personality disorders","volume":"1","author":"Vaillant","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Psychother. Pract. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Torgersen, S., Lygren, S., \u00d8ien, P.A., Skre, I., Onstad, S., Edvardsen, J., Tambs, K., and Kringlen, E. (2013). A twin study of personality disorders. Personality and Personality Disorders, Routledge."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.62.2.71","article-title":"Plate tectonics in the classification of personality disorder: Shifting to a dimensional model","volume":"62","author":"Widiger","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1002\/pmh.190","article-title":"The rationale for the reclassification of personality disorder in the 11th revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11)","volume":"5","author":"Tyrer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Personal. Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-clinpsy-050718-095736","article-title":"The development of the ICD-11 classification of personality disorders: An amalgam of science, pragmatism, and politics","volume":"15","author":"Tyrer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1471","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-6494.2012.00776.x","article-title":"Integrating normal and abnormal personality structure: The five-factor model","volume":"80","author":"Widiger","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Pers."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1177\/0004867420951608","article-title":"The borderline pattern descriptor in the International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision: A redundant addition to classification","volume":"54","author":"Mulder","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1177\/01410768231164780","article-title":"Borderline personality disorder: A spurious condition unsupported by science that should be abandoned","volume":"116","author":"Mulder","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.21249","article-title":"The problem with borderline personality disorder","volume":"23","author":"Tyrer","year":"2024","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1002\/pmh.184","article-title":"Throwing the baby out with the bathwater?","volume":"5","author":"Bateman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Personal. Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1521\/pedi_2017_31_338","article-title":"The challenge of transforming the diagnostic system of personality disorders","volume":"31","author":"Herpertz","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Personal. Disord."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.psychotherapy.20220016","article-title":"Nature and assessment of personality pathology and diagnosis","volume":"76","author":"Sharp","year":"2023","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychother."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruffalo, M.L. (2026). The validity of borderline personality disorder: Robins and Guze applied. BJPsych Bull., 1\u20133.","DOI":"10.1192\/bjb.2025.10206"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1037\/abn0000033","article-title":"The structure of personality pathology: Both general (\u2018g\u2019) and specific (\u2018s\u2019) factors?","volume":"124","author":"Sharp","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.psychotherapy.1993.47.4.558","article-title":"Personality disorders: Model for conceptual approach and classification: Part I: General model","volume":"47","author":"Svrakic","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychother."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Gelder, M.G., Andreasen, N.C., L\u00f3pez-Ibor, J.J., and Geddes, J.R. (2000). Description of specific personality disorders. New Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"65","article-title":"Modifikovana psihodinamska psihoterapija poreme\u0107aja li\u010dnosti\u2014Dileme i izazovi","volume":"43","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psihijatr. Danas"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.psychotherapy.1994.48.4.562","article-title":"Personality Disorders: Model for Conceptual Approach and Classification: Part II: Proposed Classification","volume":"48","author":"Svrakic","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychother."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"445","article-title":"Personality disorders in DSM and ICD classifications\u2014\u2018A tale of two cities\u2019","volume":"28","author":"Divac","year":"1996","journal-title":"Psihijatr. Danas"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"154","article-title":"Borderline personality disorder and depression","volume":"6","year":"1995","journal-title":"Psychiatriki"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1016\/0924-9338(96)82330-3","article-title":"Effects of dysthymia on personality assessment","volume":"11","year":"1996","journal-title":"Eur. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"361","article-title":"Personality and psychopathology","volume":"21","author":"Svrakic","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychiatriki"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Kernberg, O.F. (1975). Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism, Jason Aronson."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Kernberg, O.F. (1984). Severe Personality Disorders: Psychotherapeutic Strategies, Yale University Press."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327752jpa5401&2_4","article-title":"Rorschach assessment of primitive defenses: A review","volume":"54","author":"Lerner","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Personal. Assess."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327752jpa6102_13","article-title":"Psychodiagnosis of Personality Structure II: Borderline Personality Organization","volume":"61","author":"Acklin","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Personal. Assess."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Kernberg, O.F., and Caligor, E. (2005). A psychoanalytic theory of personality disorders. Major Theories of Personality Disorder, Guilford Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"95","article-title":"Three Dimensional Approaches to Personality Disorders: A Review on Personality Functioning, Personality Structure, and Personality Organization","volume":"23","author":"Ohse","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Psychiatry Rep."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"642","DOI":"10.1080\/00223891.2018.1489257","article-title":"Comparison of the structured DSM-5 clinical interview for the Level of Personality Functioning Scale with the Structured Interview of Personality Organization","volume":"100","author":"Kampe","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Personal. Assess."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nazari, A., Huprich, S.K., Hemmati, A., and Rezaei, F. (2021). The construct validity of the ICD-11 severity of personality dysfunction under scrutiny of object-relations theory. Front. Psychiatry, 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2021.648427"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1641","DOI":"10.1002\/pmh.1641","article-title":"Empirical convergence between Kernberg\u2019s model of personality organization and the alternative DSM-5 model for personality disorders","volume":"19","author":"Ohse","year":"2025","journal-title":"Personal. Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000199","article-title":"Current trends in BPD research as indicative of a broader sea-change in psychiatric nosology","volume":"7","author":"Sharp","year":"2016","journal-title":"Personal. Disord. Theory Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1002\/pmh.78","article-title":"Why borderline personality disorder is neither borderline nor a personality disorder","volume":"3","author":"Tyrer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Personal. Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1521\/pedi.2008.22.1.22","article-title":"BPD\u2019s interpersonal hypersensitivity phenotype: A gene-environment-developmental model","volume":"22","author":"Gunderson","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Personal. Disord."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18029","DOI":"10.1038\/nrdp.2018.29","article-title":"Borderline personality disorder","volume":"4","author":"Gunderson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"929","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.2007.164.6.929","article-title":"The subsyndromal phenomenology of borderline personality disorder: A 10-year follow-up study","volume":"164","author":"Zanarini","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2009.09081130","article-title":"Time to attainment of recovery from borderline personality disorder and stability of recovery: A 10-year prospective follow-up study","volume":"167","author":"Zanarini","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1001\/archgenpsychiatry.2011.37","article-title":"Ten-year course of borderline personality disorder: Psychopathology and function from the Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study","volume":"68","author":"Gunderson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1017\/S003329170400354X","article-title":"Stability of functional impairment in patients with schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, or obsessive-compulsive personality disorder over two years","volume":"35","author":"Skodol","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.162.5.883","article-title":"Two-year prevalence and stability of individual DSM-IV criteria for schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders: Toward a hybrid model of axis II disorders","volume":"162","author":"McGlashan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1002\/pmh.1336","article-title":"Validating the proposed ICD-11 domains","volume":"10","author":"Mulder","year":"2016","journal-title":"Personal. Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0447.1991.tb03194.x","article-title":"Factor structure of DSM-III-R personality disorders shown by self-report questionnaire: Implications for classifying and assessing personality disorders","volume":"84","author":"Dowson","year":"1991","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr. Scand."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1016\/0191-8869(94)00180-Z","article-title":"DSM-III-R and Eysenck personality measures among patients in a substance abuse programme","volume":"18","year":"1995","journal-title":"Personal. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.55.10.941","article-title":"Phenotypic and genetic structure of traits delineating personality disorder","volume":"55","author":"Livesley","year":"1998","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.24869\/psyd.2019.182","article-title":"Multiple faces of personality domains: Revalidating the proposed domains","volume":"31","author":"Pesic","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Danub."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.20844","article-title":"Validity and utility of Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP): II. Externalizing superspectrum","volume":"20","author":"Krueger","year":"2021","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1037\/a0023539","article-title":"Distinguishing general and specific personality disorder features and implications for substance dependence comorbidity","volume":"120","author":"Jahng","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pe\u0161i\u0107, D., Le\u010di\u0107-To\u0161evski, D., Kalanj, M., Risti\u0107, I., Vukovi\u0107, O., and Pejuskovi\u0107, B. (2023). Analysis of the Relationship between Higher-Order Factor Structure of Personality Disorders and the Five-Factor Model of Personality. Brain Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13040605"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1037\/gpr0000017","article-title":"The Circumplex of Personality Metatraits: A Synthesizing Model of Personality Based on the Big Five","volume":"18","author":"Strus","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rev. Gen. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrp.2016.12.002","article-title":"Towards a synthesis of personality, temperament, motivation, emotion and mental health models within the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits","volume":"66","author":"Strus","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Res. Personal."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"493","article-title":"The location of personality disorders in the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits","volume":"20","author":"Zawadzki","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rocz. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111958","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2022.111958","article-title":"Borderline personality disorder and its facets in the context of personality metatraits and pathological traits","volume":"202","author":"Brud","year":"2023","journal-title":"Personal. Individ. Differ."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-clinpsy-081219-105402","article-title":"DSM-5 Level of Personality Functioning: Refocusing Personality Disorder on What It Means to Be Human","volume":"17","author":"Sharp","year":"2021","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1120","DOI":"10.1037\/abn0000165","article-title":"Longitudinal validation of general and specific structural features of personality pathology","volume":"125","author":"Wright","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1037\/per0000592","article-title":"Borderline, where are you? A psychometric approach to the personality domains in the International Classification of Diseases, 11th Revision (ICD-11)","volume":"14","author":"Aluja","year":"2023","journal-title":"Personal. Disord. Theory Res. Treat."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1705","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291711002601","article-title":"Comparison of alternative models for personality disorders, II: 6-, 8- and 10-year follow-up","volume":"42","author":"Morey","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1060","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1991.01810360024003","article-title":"Cognitive-behavioral treatment of chronically parasuicidal borderline patients","volume":"48","author":"Linehan","year":"1991","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2009.09040539","article-title":"Randomized controlled trial of outpatient mentalization-based treatment versus structured clinical management for borderline personality disorder","volume":"166","author":"Bateman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.bp.109.070177","article-title":"Transference-focused psychotherapy v. treatment by community psychotherapists for borderline personality disorder: Randomised controlled trial","volume":"196","author":"Doering","year":"2010","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.63.6.649","article-title":"Outpatient psychotherapy for borderline personality disorder: Randomized trial of schema-focused therapy vs transference-focused psychotherapy","volume":"63","author":"Spinhoven","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/16\/3\/326\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]],"date-time":"2026-03-19T09:28:22Z","timestamp":1773912502000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/16\/3\/326"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]]},"references-count":74,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci16030326"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci16030326","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,19]]}}}