{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]],"date-time":"2026-08-10T22:00:59Z","timestamp":1786399259156,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]],"date-time":"2026-03-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774051200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012190","name":"Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["FZGW-2024-0003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FZGW-2024-0003"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012190","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Objectives: The gut\u2013brain axis is increasingly recognized as a critical modulator of cognitive function. This study investigated the neurotoxic effects of combined exposure to bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and the antiretroviral drug zidovudine (ZDV) in a mouse model, and evaluated the protective potential of two probiotic interventions: Bacillus subtilis and a mixture of lactobacilli. Methods: Cognitive function was assessed using the Morris water maze (MWM). Gut microbiota composition was analyzed by 16S rRNA sequencing, and intestinal morphology was examined histologically. Gene expression of neuroinflammatory markers and mitophagy-related genes in brain tissue was quantified by RT-PCR. Plasma levels of cell-free mitochondrial DNA (cf-mtDNA) were measured as a marker of mitochondrial damage. Results: Combined LPS + ZDV exposure induced systemic inflammation, impaired spatial memory, damaged the intestinal mucosa, and caused dysbiosis characterized by an increase in pro-inflammatory Muribaculaceae. In the brain, LPS + ZDV significantly upregulated Tnfa expression, confirming neuroinflammation. Bacillus subtilis administration prevented cognitive deficits, maintained Tnfa at control levels, and significantly reduced Il1b and Il6 expression compared to the LPS + ZDV group. This was accompanied by activation of the PINK1\/PTEN-dependent mitophagy pathway, prevention of cf-mtDNA release, and restoration of gut microbial diversity. In contrast, the Lactobacilli mixture not only failed to improve outcomes but was associated with exacerbated intestinal damage, more pronounced cognitive dysfunction, and no reduction in neuroinflammatory markers. Conclusions: Combined exposure to LPS and ZDV induces gut\u2013brain axis dysfunction characterized by neuroinflammation, cognitive impairment, intestinal damage, and dysbiosis. Bacillus subtilis effectively preserves cognitive function through activation of PINK1\/PTEN-dependent mitophagy and suppression of neuroinflammation, highlighting its potential as a therapeutic candidate for cognitive impairments associated with gut\u2013brain axis dysfunction. The contrasting effects of the lactobacilli mixture underscore the critical importance of strain-specificity in probiotic interventions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci16030340","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T11:59:36Z","timestamp":1774267176000},"page":"340","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Probiotic Bacillus subtilis, but Not a Lactobacillus spp., Ameliorates Cognitive Impairment in a Mouse Model of LPS and Zidovudine-Induced Neuroinflammation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Olga","family":"Murgina","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, Cytology and Bioengineering, Voronezh State University, Voronezh 394018, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ksenia","family":"Stafeeva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, Cytology and Bioengineering, Voronezh State University, Voronezh 394018, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sofya","family":"Karaulova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, Cytology and Bioengineering, Voronezh State University, Voronezh 394018, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alena","family":"Vostrikova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, Cytology and Bioengineering, Voronezh State University, Voronezh 394018, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sofya","family":"Kononova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, Cytology and Bioengineering, Voronezh State University, Voronezh 394018, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daria","family":"Chursina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, Cytology and Bioengineering, Voronezh State University, Voronezh 394018, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Svetlana","family":"Pozdeeva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, Cytology and Bioengineering, Voronezh State University, Voronezh 394018, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anastasia","family":"Makogonova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, Cytology and Bioengineering, Voronezh State University, Voronezh 394018, Russia"},{"name":"Laboratory of Metagenomics and Food Biotechnology, Voronezh State University of Engineering Technologies, Voronezh 394036, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5881-0845","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Inna","family":"Burakova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Metagenomics and Food Biotechnology, Voronezh State University of Engineering Technologies, Voronezh 394036, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-7924-8027","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Svetlana","family":"Pogorelova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Metagenomics and Food Biotechnology, Voronezh State University of Engineering Technologies, Voronezh 394036, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-0075-9170","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Polina","family":"Morozova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Metagenomics and Food Biotechnology, Voronezh State University of Engineering Technologies, Voronezh 394036, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5820-1804","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yulia","family":"Smirnova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Metagenomics and Food Biotechnology, Voronezh State University of Engineering Technologies, Voronezh 394036, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mikhail","family":"Syromyatnikov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, Cytology and Bioengineering, Voronezh State University, Voronezh 394018, Russia"},{"name":"Laboratory of Metagenomics and Food Biotechnology, Voronezh State University of Engineering Technologies, Voronezh 394036, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Viktor","family":"Shutikov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Innovative Preparations of Recombinant Proteomics, All-Russian Veterinary Research Institute of Pathology, Pharmacology and Therapy, Voronezh 394087, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Evgeny","family":"Mikhailov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental Pharmacology and Functioning of Living Systems, All-Russian Veterinary Research Institute of Pathology, Pharmacology and Therapy, Voronezh 394087, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3562-5329","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Artem","family":"Gureev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics, Cytology and Bioengineering, Voronezh State University, Voronezh 394018, Russia"},{"name":"Laboratory of Metagenomics and Food Biotechnology, Voronezh State University of Engineering Technologies, Voronezh 394036, Russia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Puga-Olgu\u00edn, A., Hern\u00e1ndez-Hern\u00e1ndez, M.F., Fern\u00e1ndez-Demeneghi, R., L\u00f3pez-Miranda, C.I., and Flores-Aguilar, L.A. 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