{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,31]],"date-time":"2026-07-31T05:15:32Z","timestamp":1785474932742,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":110,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]],"date-time":"2026-03-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774051200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Italian Ministry of University and Research PRIN 2022","award":["20229PSYEP\u2014CUP D53D23009500006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20229PSYEP\u2014CUP D53D23009500006"]}]},{"name":"PRIN PNRR 2022","award":["P2022F2TLB\u2014CUP D53D23020670001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P2022F2TLB\u2014CUP D53D23020670001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background and Objectives: Children with specific learning disorders (SLD) often present a history of speech and language deficits. However, systematic evidence on the co-occurrence among distinct learning and communication disorders remains limited. This study aimed to describe the associations among reading, spelling, and math disorders and their relationships with clinically diagnosed speech sound and language disorders and speech sound disorders in a large, well-characterized clinical sample. Methods: 235 3rd- to 8th-grade Italian children with SLD participated in the study. They were categorized in terms of learning (reading, spelling, and math) and comorbid communication disorders (speech sound, and language disorders), according to established diagnostic criteria. Prevalence rates were assessed for each of the resulting subgroups. Results: Comorbidity between the three learning disorders was very frequent; 75.4% of children showed different forms of multiple SLDs, with 47.7% presenting a combined reading, spelling, and math disorder. Communication disorders were reported in 40.4% of the sample. Both language and speech sound disorders frequently co-occurred with spelling disorders, whereas associations with isolated reading or math disorders were more infrequent. Additionally, speech sound disorders frequently co-occurred with isolated spelling disorders, whereas language disorders frequently co-occurred with comorbid spelling disorders. Conclusions: Consistent with previous evidence, the study shows that learning disorders are highly comorbid with communication disorders. Critically, speech and language disorders are most frequently comorbid with spelling disorder, independent of reading and math deficits, highlighting spelling as a potential key interface between phonology, language, and learning.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci16030341","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T11:59:36Z","timestamp":1774267176000},"page":"341","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Associations Between Language, Speech Sound, and Learning Disorders"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8806-5655","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chiara Valeria","family":"Marinelli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Lab, University of Foggia, 71122 Foggia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-0702-1705","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emiliano","family":"Pizzicannella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Lab, University of Foggia, 71122 Foggia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marinella De","family":"Salvatore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2165-5757","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniela","family":"Sarti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7884-3353","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vincenza","family":"Tommasi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience Lab, University of Foggia, 71122 Foggia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6351-2455","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pierluigi","family":"Zoccolotti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tuscany Rehabilitation Clinic, 52025 Montevarchi, Italy"},{"name":"Gianfranco Salvini Foundation ETS, 52025 Montevarchi, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-6685-3134","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Luca","family":"Andreoli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Humanities and Life Sciences, University School for Advanced Studies IUSS, 27100 Pavia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elisa","family":"Granocchio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, 20133 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Association. [5th ed.].","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1177\/001440290907500403","article-title":"The impact of Specific Language Impairment on adolescents\u2019 written text","volume":"75","author":"Dockrell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Except. Child."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2009.02164.x","article-title":"Comorbidity of learning disorders: Prevalence and familial transmission","volume":"51","author":"Landerl","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moll, K., Kunze, S., Neuhoff, N., Bruder, J., and Schulte-K\u00f6rne, G. (2014). Specific learning disorder: Prevalence and gender differences. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0103537"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.12965","article-title":"Understanding comorbidity of learning disorders: Task-dependent estimates of prevalence","volume":"60","author":"Moll","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2011.11.005","article-title":"Auditory processing and speech perception in children with Specific Language Impairment: Relations with oral language and literacy skills","volume":"33","author":"Vandewalle","year":"2012","journal-title":"Res. Dev. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219410392042","article-title":"Initial mental graphemic representation acquisition and later literacy achievement in children with language impairment: A longitudinal study","volume":"44","author":"Wolter","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Learn. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1080\/10888430903162878","article-title":"Double dissociation between reading and spelling deficits","volume":"13","author":"Moll","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sci. Stud. Read."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1509","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-024-10566-z","article-title":"On the relationship between word reading ability and spelling Ability","volume":"38","author":"Treiman","year":"2025","journal-title":"Read. Writ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00401798","article-title":"Specific spelling disability: Factual or artifactual?","volume":"2","author":"Joshi","year":"1990","journal-title":"Read. Writ."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.60.110707.163548","article-title":"Relations among speech, language, and reading disorders","volume":"60","author":"Pennington","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3507","DOI":"10.1044\/2017_JSLHR-L-16-0473","article-title":"Identifying children at risk for language impairment or dyslexia with group-administered measures","volume":"60","author":"Adlof","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2009.01281.x","article-title":"Children who read words accurately despite language impairment: Who are they and how do they do it?","volume":"80","author":"Bishop","year":"2009","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1378","DOI":"10.1044\/1092-4388(2005\/096)","article-title":"Are specific language impairment and dyslexia distinct disorders?","volume":"48","author":"Catts","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1044\/1092-4388(2002\/028)","article-title":"Language and reading outcomes to age 9 in late-talking toddlers","volume":"45","author":"Rescorla","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1044\/1092-4388(2008\/07-0171)","article-title":"Age 17 language and reading outcomes in late-talking toddlers: Support for a dimensional perspective on language delay","volume":"52","author":"Rescorla","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rinaldi, P., Bello, A., Simonelli, I., and Caselli, M.C. (2023). Is specific learning disorder predicted by developmental language disorder? Evidence from a follow-up study on Italian children. Brain Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci13040701"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e548","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.13216","article-title":"Wellcome Language and Reading Project Team developmental outcomes for children at high risk of Dyslexia and children with Developmental Language Disorder","volume":"90","author":"Snowling","year":"2019","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-7610.00651","article-title":"Is preschool language impairment a risk factor for dyslexia in adolescence?","volume":"41","author":"Snowling","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1111\/1460-6984.12010","article-title":"Written language skills in children with Specific Language Impairment","volume":"48","author":"Williams","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Lang. Commun. Disord."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1044\/2018_LSHSS-18-0041","article-title":"Mathematical abilities in children with Developmental Language Disorder","volume":"50","author":"Cross","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lang. Speech Hear. Serv. Sch."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Durkin, K., Mok, P.L.H., and Conti-Ramsden, G. (2013). Severity of Specific Language Impairment predicts delayed development in number skills. Front. Psychol., 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2013.00581"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105009","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2020.105009","article-title":"Language difficulties are a shared risk factor for both reading disorder and mathematics disorder","volume":"202","author":"Snowling","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.12721","article-title":"Phase 2 of CATALISE: A multinational and multidisciplinary Delphi Consensus study of problems with language development: Terminology","volume":"58","author":"Bishop","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Dodd, B. (2005). Differential Diagnosis and Treatment of Children with Speech Disorder, Whurr. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"578","DOI":"10.1111\/dmcn.12635","article-title":"Speech Sound Disorder at 4 years: Prevalence, comorbidities, and predictors in a community cohort of children","volume":"57","author":"Eadie","year":"2015","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1044\/2014_LSHSS-13-0081","article-title":"Speech abilities in preschool children with Speech Sound Disorder with and without co-occurring language impairment","volume":"45","author":"Macrae","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lang. Speech Hear. Serv. Sch."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1044\/1092-4388(2004\/031)","article-title":"The development of early literacy skills among children with speech difficulties: A test of the \u201ccritical age hypothesis\u201d","volume":"47","author":"Nathan","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106054","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcomdis.2020.106054","article-title":"Identification of the factors associated with the severity of the speech production problems in children with comorbid Speech Sound Disorder and Developmental Language Disorder","volume":"88","author":"Torres","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Commun. Disord."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e071262","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2022-071262","article-title":"Shared characteristics of intervention techniques for oral vocabulary and speech comprehensibility in preschool children with co-occurring features of Developmental Language Disorder and a phonological Speech Sound Disorder: Protocol for a systematic review with narrative synthesis","volume":"13","author":"Rodgers","year":"2023","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1111\/1460-6984.12719","article-title":"Interventions for pre-school children with co-occurring phonological Speech Sound Disorder and expressive language difficulties: A scoping review","volume":"57","author":"Rodgers","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Lang. Commun. Disord."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-7610.00052","article-title":"Young adult academic outcomes in a longitudinal sample of early identified language impaired and control children","volume":"43","author":"Young","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1044\/2014_AJSLP-14-0075","article-title":"Adolescent outcomes of children with early Speech Sound Disorders with and without language impairment","volume":"24","author":"Lewis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Speech Lang. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-005-4322-4","article-title":"Associated reading skills in children with a history of Specific Language Impairment (SLI)","volume":"19","author":"Botting","year":"2006","journal-title":"Read. Writ."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1177\/001440290707300202","article-title":"Constraints in the production of written text in children with Specific Language Impairments","volume":"73","author":"Dockrell","year":"2007","journal-title":"Except. Child."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1044\/jslhr.4302.324","article-title":"General language performance measures in spoken and written narrative and expository discourse of school-age children with language learning disabilities","volume":"43","author":"Scott","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1322","DOI":"10.1044\/jslhr.4306.1322","article-title":"Verb and Noun Morphology in the spoken and written language of children with language learning disabilities","volume":"43","author":"Windsor","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8624.00317","article-title":"Early reading development in children at family risk for Dyslexia","volume":"72","author":"Pennington","year":"2001","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3714","DOI":"10.1044\/2020_JSLHR-20-00108","article-title":"Reading risk in children with Speech Sound Disorder: Prevalence, persistence, and predictors","volume":"63","author":"Tambyraja","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.1990.tb00844.x","article-title":"A Prospective study of the relationship between Specific Language Impairment, phonological disorders and reading retardation","volume":"31","author":"Bishop","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1044\/1058-0360.0802.118","article-title":"Early reading achievement in children with expressive phonological disorders","volume":"8","author":"Larrivee","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Speech Lang. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2004.00275.x","article-title":"Pre-literacy skills of subgroups of children with Speech Sound Disorders","volume":"45","author":"Raitano","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9924(99)00023-4","article-title":"Academic outcomes in children with histories of Speech Sound Disorders","volume":"33","author":"Lewis","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Commun. Disord."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.1044\/2018_LSHSS-DYSLC-18-0049","article-title":"Understanding dyslexia in the context of Developmental Language Disorders","volume":"49","author":"Adlof","year":"2018","journal-title":"Lang. Speech Hear. Serv. Sch."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-7610.00674","article-title":"On the \u201cSpecifics\u201d of Specific Reading Disability and Specific Language Impairment","volume":"41","author":"McArthur","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Angelelli, P., Marinelli, C.V., Iaia, M., Putzolu, A., Gasperini, F., Brizzolara, D., and Chilosi, A.M. (2016). Spelling impairments in Italian dyslexic children with and without a history of early language delay. Are There Any Differences?. Front. Psychol., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2016.00527"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1097\/01.wnn.0000213902.59827.19","article-title":"Do phonologic and rapid automatized naming deficits differentially affect dyslexic children with and without a history of language delay? A study of Italian dyslexic children","volume":"19","author":"Brizzolara","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cogn. Behav. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1080\/09297040902927614","article-title":"Reading and spelling disabilities in children with and without a history of early language delay: A neuropsychological and linguistic study","volume":"15","author":"Chilosi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Child Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lorusso, M.L., Cantiani, C., and Molteni, M. (2014). Age, Dyslexia subtype and comorbidity modulate rapid auditory processing in Developmental Dyslexia. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00313"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1097\/WNN.0b013e31818a5caf","article-title":"Is There a distinct form of Developmental Dyslexia in children with Specific Language Impairment?: Findings from an orthographically regular language","volume":"21","author":"Scuccimarra","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cogn. Behav. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecresq.2019.06.005","article-title":"Speech difficulties at school entry are a significant risk factor for later reading difficulties","volume":"49","author":"Burgoyne","year":"2019","journal-title":"Early Child. Res. Q."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1080\/02643299208252052","article-title":"Deficits in output phonology: An explanation of reading failure?","volume":"9","author":"Hulme","year":"1992","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1044\/2024_JSLHR-24-00170","article-title":"Are speech sound difficulties risk factors for difficulties in language and reading skills? A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"68","author":"Furnes","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-7610.00726","article-title":"Phonological processing, language, and literacy: A comparison of children with mild-to-moderate sensorineural hearing loss and those with Specific Language Impairment","volume":"42","author":"Briscoe","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1080\/13682820601178584","article-title":"Comparing phonological skills and spelling abilities in children with reading and language impairments","volume":"43","author":"Larkin","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Lang. Commun. Disord."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2005.09.002","article-title":"Genetic influences on language impairment and phonological short-term memory","volume":"9","author":"Newbury","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3277","DOI":"10.1044\/2020_JSLHR-20-00118","article-title":"Promoting reading achievement in children with Developmental Language Disorders: What can we learn from research on Specific Language Impairment and Dyslexia?","volume":"63","author":"Adlof","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00867336","article-title":"Phonological deficits: Beneath the surface of reading-acquisition problems","volume":"53","author":"Vroomen","year":"1991","journal-title":"Psychol. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1037\/a0025823","article-title":"Individual prediction of dyslexia by single versus multiple deficit models","volume":"121","author":"Pennington","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1080\/10888430903034812","article-title":"Componential skills in early spelling development in Korean","volume":"14","author":"Kim","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sci. Stud. Read."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1469","DOI":"10.1044\/1092-4388(2004\/109)","article-title":"The nature of written language deficits in children with SLI","volume":"47","author":"Mackie","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1598\/RRQ.33.3.4","article-title":"Concurrent and longitudinal predictors of reading: The role of metalinguistic and short-term memory skills","volume":"33","author":"Muter","year":"1998","journal-title":"Read. Res. Q."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.98.1.134","article-title":"Contributions of morphology beyond phonology to literacy outcomes of upper elementary and middle-school students","volume":"98","author":"Nagy","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1080\/10888430903162910","article-title":"Morphological awareness, orthographic knowledge, and spelling errors: Keys to understanding early Chinese literacy acquisition","volume":"13","author":"Tong","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sci. Stud. Read."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-9452(08)70106-0","article-title":"Written language as a window in to residual language deficits: A study of children with persistent and residual speech and language impairments","volume":"39","author":"Bishop","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1044\/2021_LSHSS-20-00086","article-title":"Capturing the nature of the spelling errors in Developmental Language Disorder: A scoping review","volume":"52","author":"Broc","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lang. Speech Hear. Serv. Sch."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1080\/10888438.2018.1491584","article-title":"Spelling performance in children with Developmental Language Disorder: A meta-analysis across European languages","volume":"23","author":"Joye","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Stud. Read."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1015237202592","article-title":"Correlates of spelling abilities in children with early Speech Sound Disorders","volume":"15","author":"Lewis","year":"2002","journal-title":"Read. Writ."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1207\/s15326942dn2901_6","article-title":"Spelling patterns in preadolescents with atypical language skills: Phonological, morphological, and orthographic factors","volume":"29","author":"Silliman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Dev. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-7610.00601","article-title":"Precursors of literacy delay among children at genetic risk of Dyslexia","volume":"41","author":"Gallagher","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1628","DOI":"10.1044\/1092-4388(2011\/10-0124)","article-title":"Literacy outcomes of children with early childhood Speech Sound Disorders: Impact of endophenotypes","volume":"54","author":"Lewis","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"672","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.13140","article-title":"Dyslexia and Developmental Language Disorder: Comorbid disorders with distinct effects on reading comprehension","volume":"61","author":"Snowling","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1654","DOI":"10.1044\/2015_JSLHR-S-14-0276","article-title":"Preliteracy speech sound production skill and linguistic characteristics of grade 3 spellings: A study using the Templin archive","volume":"58","author":"Overby","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1175","DOI":"10.1044\/1092-4388(2009\/08-0024)","article-title":"What influences literacy outcome in children with Speech Sound Disorder?","volume":"52","author":"Peterson","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Speech Lang. Hear. Res."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1111\/jcpp.12648","article-title":"When does Speech Sound Disorder matter for literacy? The role of disordered speech errors, co-occurring language impairment and family risk of Dyslexia","volume":"58","author":"Carroll","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Perfetti, C.A. (1992). The representation problem in reading acquisition. Reading Acquisition, Routledge."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1055\/s-2007-967929","article-title":"Childhood apraxia of speech: Children at risk for persistent reading and spelling Disorder","volume":"28","author":"Gillon","year":"2007","journal-title":"Semin. Speech Lang."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1080\/1368282021000007776","article-title":"Follow-up study investigating the benefits of phonological awareness intervention for children with spoken language impairment","volume":"37","author":"Gillon","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Lang. Commun. Disord."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1044\/0161-1461(2005\/031)","article-title":"Facilitating phoneme awareness development in 3- and 4-year-old children with speech impairment","volume":"36","author":"Gillon","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lang. Speech Hear. Serv. Sch."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcomdis.2005.11.003","article-title":"Dimensions of early Speech Sound Disorders: A Factor Analytic Study","volume":"39","author":"Lewis","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Commun. Disord."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1007\/s11881-013-0084-x","article-title":"Spelling well despite Developmental Language Disorder: What makes it possible?","volume":"63","author":"Rakhlin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.3109\/02699206.2012.702185","article-title":"Is weak oral language associated with poor spelling in school-age children with Specific Language Impairment, Dyslexia or both?","volume":"26","author":"McCarthy","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Linguist. Phon."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1080\/14769670400018315","article-title":"Spelling development in Swedish children with and without language impairment","volume":"2","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Multiling. Commun. Disord."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2004.11.004","article-title":"Number and language: How are they related?","volume":"9","author":"Gelman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.051508.135550","article-title":"Representation of number in the brain","volume":"32","author":"Nieder","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bowerman, M., and Levinson, S. (2001). Initial knowledge and conceptual change: Space and number. Language Acquisition and Conceptual Development, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511620669"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1162\/001152604772746701","article-title":"Bootstrapping & the origin of concepts","volume":"133","author":"Carey","year":"2004","journal-title":"Daedalus"},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Ginsburg, H.P. (2009). Early mathematics education and how to do it. Handbook of Child Development and Early Education: Research to Practice, Guilford Press."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2003.10.002","article-title":"The semantics and acquisition of number words: Integrating linguistic and developmental perspectives","volume":"93","author":"Musolino","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marinelli, C.V., Nardacchione, G., Martelli, M., Tommasi, V., Turi, M., Angelelli, P., Limone, P., and Zoccolotti, P. (2025). Impaired instance acquisition as a cause of the comorbidity of learning disorders in young adults. Front. Behav. Neurosci., 19.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2025.1560362"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zoccolotti, P., De Luca, M., Marinelli, C.V., and Spinelli, D. (2020). Predicting individual differences in reading, spelling and maths in a sample of typically developing children: A study in the perspective of comorbidity. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0231937"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zoccolotti, P., De Luca, M., Marinelli, C.V., and Spinelli, D. (2020). Testing the specificity of predictors of reading, spelling and maths: A new model of the association among learning skills based on competence, performance and acquisition. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2020.573998"},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"(2026, January 25). Linea Guida sulla Gestione dei Disturbi Specifici dell\u2019Apprendimento (DSA). Aggiornamento ed Integrazioni (Eng. Transl.: Guideline on the Management of Specific Learning Disorders (SLD). Updates and Additions). Sistema Nazionale Linee Guida dell\u2019Istituto Superiore di Sanit\u00e0. Available online: https:\/\/www.iss.it\/-\/snlg-disturbi-specifici-apprendimento."},{"key":"ref_94","unstructured":"Cornoldi, C., Carretti, B., Cesaretto, J., and Viola, F. (2016). Prove MT-3-Clinica: La Valutazione delle Abilit\u00e0 di Lettura e Comprensione per la Scuola Primaria e Secondaria di Primo Grado, Giunti Edu."},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"Sartori, G., Job, R., and Tressoldi, P.E. (2013). DDE-2 Batteria per la Valutazione della Dislessia e della Disortografia Evolutiva-2: Manuale, Giunti O.S.. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"Angellelli, P., Marinelli, C.V., Iaia, M., Notarnicola, A., Costabile, D., Judica, A., Zoccolotti, P., and Luzzatti, C. (2016). DDO-2: Diagnosi dei Disturbi Ortografici in Et\u00e0 Evolutiva, Centro Studi Erickson."},{"key":"ref_97","unstructured":"Cornoldi, C., Re, A.M., and Ferrara, R. (2022). BVSCO-3: Batteria per la Valutazione Clinica della Scrittura e della Competenza Ortografica, Giunti Psychometrics."},{"key":"ref_98","unstructured":"Biancardi, A., Bachmann, C., and Nicoletti, C. (2022). BDE-2 Batteria Discalculia Evolutiva: Test per la Diagnosi dei Disturbi dell\u2019Elaborazione Numerica e del Calcolo in Et\u00e0 Evolutiva\u20148-13 Anni, Erickson."},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"Bortolini, U. (2004). Test PFLI: Prove per la Valutazione Fonologica del Linguaggio Infantile, Edizioni del Cerro."},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"Marini, A., Marotta, L., Bulgheroni, S., and Fabbro, F. (2015). BVL 4\u201312: Batteria per la Valutazione del Linguaggio in Bambini dai 4 ai 12 Anni, Giunti O.S."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1598\/RRQ.26.1.3","article-title":"Does phoneme awareness training in kindergarten make a difference in early word recognition and developmental spelling?","volume":"26","author":"Ball","year":"1991","journal-title":"Read. Res. Q."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gosv\u0101m\u012b, U., and Bryant, P. (2016). Phonological Skills and Learning to Read, Taylor and Francis. Psychology Press & Routledge Classic Editions.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315785110"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1598\/RRQ.23.3.1","article-title":"Effects of an extensive program for stimulating phonological awareness in preschool children","volume":"23","author":"Lundberg","year":"1988","journal-title":"Read. Res. Q."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"858","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.130.6.858","article-title":"Developmental Dyslexia and Specific Language Impairment: Same or different?","volume":"130","author":"Bishop","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_105","first-page":"2","article-title":"Con che occhiali guardiamo i numeri? Considerazioni sull\u2019uso e l\u2019interpretazione delle misure in psicologia","volume":"3","author":"Zoccolotti","year":"2024","journal-title":"TOPIC"},{"key":"ref_106","first-page":"99","article-title":"\u00c8 tempo di cambiare: Riflessioni sui paradigmi utili nello studio dei disturbi dell\u2019apprendimento nella prospettiva RDoC","volume":"4","author":"Marinelli","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ric. Psic. Psicol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2010.06.015","article-title":"Spelling impairments in Italian dyslexic children: Phenomenological changes in primary school","volume":"46","author":"Angelelli","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1080\/17549500903161561","article-title":"Predicting children\u2019s speech, language and reading impairment over time","volume":"11","author":"Taylor","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Speech Lang. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wechsler, D. (2003). WISC-IV: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, PsychCorp. [4th ed.].","DOI":"10.1037\/t15174-000"},{"key":"ref_110","unstructured":"Orsini, A., Pezzuti, L., and Picone, L. (2012). WISC-IV: Contributo alla Taratura Italiana, Giunti O.S."}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/16\/3\/341\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T12:30:10Z","timestamp":1774269010000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/16\/3\/341"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]]},"references-count":110,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci16030341"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci16030341","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]]}}}