{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T12:58:32Z","timestamp":1776430712973,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":98,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1776384000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Given the central role of writing and typing in contemporary communication, integrating writing assessments into clinical practice is crucial for improving the diagnosis and management of primary progressive aphasia (PPA). This scoping review summarizes evidence on writing abilities in PPA, examining task types, their strengths and limitations, the linguistic features of stimuli, and the influence of language differences. Methods: A literature search was conducted using the Google Scholar and PubMed databases. We included papers published in peer-reviewed journals and written in English that present data from at least one PPA subject and report a quantitative score relative to a writing task. Fifty-one studies were included (forty-seven behavioral; four with neuroimaging). Results: Overall, the literature is fragmented, with marked variability in task design and the control of psycholinguistic variables. Writing to dictation is the most frequently used task but fails to capture the full spectrum of writing impairments, whereas tasks tapping lexico-semantic, morpho-syntactic, and discourse-level abilities are rarely employed. At the syndromic description level, svPPA typically shows surface dysgraphia, nfvPPA presents phonological dysgraphia and agrammatic writing, and lvPPA displays mixed error profiles. Neuroimaging findings are highly heterogeneous. Conclusions: The review underscores the need for systematic, linguistically grounded approaches to writing assessments in PPA to enhance diagnostic precision and cross-linguistic comparability.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci16040420","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T11:53:46Z","timestamp":1776426826000},"page":"420","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Writing Abilities in Primary Progressive Aphasia: A Scoping Literature Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Valentina","family":"Esposito","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, Milan Institute, 20138 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1809-6541","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francesca","family":"Conca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ICoN Cognitive Neuroscience Center, Institute for Advanced Studies, IUSS, 27100 Pavia, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gaia C.","family":"Santi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, Bari Institute, 70124 Bari, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1003-3925","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefano F.","family":"Cappa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ICoN Cognitive Neuroscience Center, Institute for Advanced Studies, IUSS, 27100 Pavia, Italy"},{"name":"IRCCS Istituto Auxologico, 20145 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Eleonora","family":"Catrical\u00e0","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ICoN Cognitive Neuroscience Center, Institute for Advanced Studies, IUSS, 27100 Pavia, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Purcell, J.J., Turkeltaub, P.E., Eden, G.F., and Rapp, B. (2011). Examining the central and peripheral processes of written word production through meta-analysis. Front. Psychol., 2.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2011.00239"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2008.05.013","article-title":"Where (in the brain) do semantic errors come from?","volume":"45","author":"Cloutman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.3171\/jns.2004.101.5.0787","article-title":"Writing-specific sites in frontal areas: A cortical stimulation study","volume":"101","author":"Lubrano","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1155\/2007\/906417","article-title":"Parietal dysgraphia: Characterization of abnormal writing stroke sequences, character formation and character recall","volume":"18","author":"Sakurai","year":"2007","journal-title":"Behav. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1111\/1460-6984.12348","article-title":"Oral and written picture description in individuals with aphasia","volume":"53","author":"Vandenborre","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Lang. Commun. Disord."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2772","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2013.05.011","article-title":"The \u201chandwriting brain\u201d: A meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies of motor versus orthographic processes","volume":"49","author":"Planton","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Ellis, A.W. (1982). Spelling and writing (and reading and speaking). Normality and Pathology in Cognitive Functions, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1080\/02643298608253363","article-title":"Lexical but nonsemantic spelling?","volume":"3","author":"Patterson","year":"1986","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1016\/S0911-6044(01)00040-9","article-title":"Selective difficulties with spoken nouns and written verbs: A single case study","volume":"15","author":"Rapp","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Neurolinguistics"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0277(87)90014-X","article-title":"The role of the graphemic buffer in spelling: Evidence from a case of acquired dysgraphia","volume":"26","author":"Caramazza","year":"1987","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordjournals.bmb.a071699","article-title":"Neurological impairment of cognitive processes","volume":"37","author":"Shallice","year":"1981","journal-title":"Br. Med. Bull."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1080\/02687038.2013.869308","article-title":"Dysgraphia in primary progressive aphasia: Characterisation of impairments and therapy options","volume":"28","author":"Graham","year":"2014","journal-title":"Aphasiology"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/S0072-9752(07)88015-8","article-title":"Cognitive processes underlying reading and writing and their neural substrates","volume":"88","author":"Hillis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Handb. Clin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mesulam, M.M., Coventry, C., Bigio, E.H., Geula, C., Thompson, C., Bonakdarpour, B., Gefen, T., Rogalski, E.J., and Weintraub, S. (2021). Nosology of primary progressive aphasia and the neuropathology of language. Frontotemporal Dementias: Emerging Milestones of the 21st Century, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-51140-1_3"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1006","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e31821103e6","article-title":"Classification of primary progressive aphasia and its variants","volume":"76","author":"Hillis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1080\/13554790008402708","article-title":"Dysgraphia in dementia","volume":"6","author":"Graham","year":"2000","journal-title":"Neurocase"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1080\/13554790409609945","article-title":"When more yields less: Speaking and writing deficits in nonfluent progressive aphasia","volume":"10","author":"Graham","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurocase"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fan, J.M., Gorno-Tempini, M.L., Dronkers, N.F., Miller, B.L., Berger, M.S., and Chang, E.F. (2020). Data-Driven, visual framework for the characterization of aphasias across stroke, post-resective, and neurodegenerative disorders over time. Front. Neurol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.616764"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000000271","article-title":"Logopenic, mixed, or Alzheimer-related aphasia?","volume":"82","author":"Sajjadi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2020.09.004","article-title":"Linguistic profiles, brain metabolic patterns and rates of amyloid-\u03b2 biomarker positivity in patients with mixed primary progressive aphasia","volume":"96","author":"Mazzeo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Aging"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104676","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2019.104676","article-title":"Clinical and neuroimaging characteristics of clinically unclassifiable primary progressive aphasia","volume":"197","author":"Utianski","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0038-1660782","article-title":"Assessment of individuals with primary progressive aphasia","volume":"Volume 39","author":"Henry","year":"2018","journal-title":"Seminars in Speech and Language"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Neophytou, K., Themistocleous, C., Wiley, R., Tsapkini, K., and Rapp, B. (2018, January 21\u201323). Understanding and classifying the different variants of Primary Progressive Aphasia based on spelling performance. Proceedings of the Academy of Aphasia 56th Annual Meeting, Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.3389\/conf.fnhum.2018.228.00001"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1177\/13872877251376381","article-title":"Written picture descriptions distinguish variants of primary progressive aphasia","volume":"108","author":"Tippett","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1268","DOI":"10.1080\/17470218.2014.978877","article-title":"Written object naming, spelling to dictation, and immediate copying: Different tasks, different pathways?","volume":"68","author":"Bonin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Q. J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-017-9727-3","article-title":"The impact of image characteristics on written naming in adults","volume":"32","author":"Bonin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Read. Writ."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Whitworth, A., Webster, J., and Howard, D. (2005). Written word production. A Cognitive Neuropsychological Approach to Assessment and Intervention in Aphasia: A Clinician\u2019s Guide, Psychology Press.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203493502"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2519","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2007.03.019","article-title":"Do dual-route models accurately predict reading and spelling performance in individuals with acquired alexia and agraphia?","volume":"45","author":"Rapcsak","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1155\/2005\/492935","article-title":"Acquired disorders of reading and writing: Cross-script comparisons","volume":"16","author":"Weekes","year":"2006","journal-title":"Behav. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/950972","article-title":"Acquired dyslexia and dysgraphia across scripts","volume":"25","author":"Weekes","year":"2012","journal-title":"Behav. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, J., Ota, S., Kawakami, N., Kanno, S., and Suzuki, K. (2022). Dyslexia and dysgraphia of primary progressive aphasia in Chinese: A systematic review. Front. Neurol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2022.1025660"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2119","DOI":"10.11124\/JBIES-20-00167","article-title":"Updated methodological guidance for the conduct of scoping reviews","volume":"18","author":"Peters","year":"2020","journal-title":"JBI Evid. Synth."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.7326\/M18-0850","article-title":"PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMAScR): Checklist and Explanation","volume":"169","author":"Tricco","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3932(99)00060-3","article-title":"The impact of semantic memory impairment on spelling. Evidence from semantic dementia","volume":"38","author":"Graham","year":"2000","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_00901","article-title":"Phonological processing in primary progressive aphasia","volume":"28","author":"Henry","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2245","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000200350","article-title":"Dysgraphia phenotypes in native Chinese speakers with primary progressive aphasia","volume":"98","author":"Tee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"15","article-title":"Non-semantic Aspects of Language in Semantic Dementia: As Normal as They\u2019re Said to Be?","volume":"12","author":"Benedet","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurocase Neural Basis Cogn."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1080\/02687038.2019.1693025","article-title":"Multilingualism in semantic dementia: Language-dependent lexical retrieval from degraded conceptual representations","volume":"35","author":"Calabria","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aphasiology"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/13554794.2013.841953","article-title":"Atypical association of semantic dementia, corticobasal syndrome, and 4R tauopathy","volume":"21","author":"Clerc","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurocase"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1224","DOI":"10.1080\/09602011.2019.1570943","article-title":"Improvement in functional vocabulary and generalization to conversation following a self-administered treatment using a smart tablet in primary progressive aphasia","volume":"30","author":"Lavoie","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"866","DOI":"10.1080\/09602011.2017.1339358","article-title":"Comparing the effects of clinicians and caregiver-admnistered lexical retrieval training for progressive anomia","volume":"29","author":"Grasso","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nickels, K., Beeson, P.M., Rising, K., Jebahi, F., and Kielar, A. (2023). Positive changes to written language following phonological treatment in logopenic variant primary progressive aphasia: Case report. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2022.1006350"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2009.09.017","article-title":"Progranulin-associated primary progressive aphasia: A distinct phenotype?","volume":"48","author":"Rohrer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2014.05.004","article-title":"Primary progressive aphasia: Linguistic patterns and clinical variants","volume":"135","author":"Silveri","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1111\/jnp.12149","article-title":"Neuropsychological differentiation of progressive aphasic disorders","volume":"13","author":"Harris","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroling.2013.04.003","article-title":"The effects of the initation, termination and inhibition impairments on speech rate in a case of progressive nonfluent aphasia with progressive apraxia of speech with frontotemporal degeneration","volume":"26","author":"Code","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurolinguistics"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1080\/02687039608248414","article-title":"Effects of verbal plus gestural matrix training on sentence production in a patient with primary progressive aphasia","volume":"10","author":"Schneider","year":"2007","journal-title":"Aphasiology"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1080\/23279095.2020.1811707","article-title":"Writing errors in primary progressive aphasia","volume":"29","author":"Anzuino","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Neuropsychol. Adult"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1521","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-180990","article-title":"The role of word properties in performance on fluency tasks in people with primary progressive aphasia","volume":"68","author":"Rofes","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1929","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2012.04.017","article-title":"Anatomic, clinical, and neuropsychological correlates of spelling errors in primary progressive aphasia","volume":"50","author":"Shim","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2009.12.001","article-title":"Patterns of breakdown in spelling in primary progressive aphasia","volume":"47","author":"Sepelyak","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1006\/brcg.2001.1397","article-title":"Is surface dysgraphia tied to semantic impairment? Evidence from a case of semantic dementia","volume":"48","author":"Macoir","year":"2002","journal-title":"Brain Cogn."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1080\/02687038.2020.1734530","article-title":"Acquired surface dysgraphia and dyslexia in the semantic variant of primary progressive aphasia: A single-case study in Spanish","volume":"35","author":"Difalcis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aphasiology"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2019.107241","article-title":"Does surface dyslexia\/dysgraphia relate to semantic deficits in the semantic variant of primary progressive aphasia?","volume":"135","author":"Teichmann","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1080\/02643290442000220","article-title":"\u201cDeep\u201d language disorders in nonfluent progressive Aphasia: An evaluation of the \u201csummation\u201d account of semantic errors across language production tasks","volume":"22","author":"Tree","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cogn. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1644","DOI":"10.1016\/S0028-3932(03)00108-8","article-title":"Surface dyslexia in a Japanese patient with semantic dementia: Evidence for similarity-based orthography-to-phonology translation","volume":"41","author":"Fushimi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1080\/13554794.2019.1631853","article-title":"A MEG study of the neural substrates of semantic processing in semantic variant primary progressive aphasia","volume":"25","author":"Pineault","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurocase"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1590\/1980-57642021dn15-030014","article-title":"Heterogeneity of repetition abilities in logopenic variant primary progressive aphasia","volume":"15","author":"Macoir","year":"2021","journal-title":"Dement. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1062","DOI":"10.1080\/02687038.2015.1028327","article-title":"Prophylactic treatments for anomia in the logopenic variant of primary progressive aphasia: Cross-language transfer","volume":"29","author":"Meyer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Aphasiology"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.2006.18.2.169","article-title":"\u201cPresemantic\u201d cognition in semantic dementia: Six deficits in search of an explanation","volume":"18","author":"Patterson","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_00153","article-title":"Written language Impairments in Primary Progressive Aphasia: A Reflection of Damage to Central Semantic and Phonological Process","volume":"24","author":"Henry","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2016.08.007","article-title":"Lexical-semantic deficits in processing food and non-food items","volume":"110","author":"Rumiati","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain Cogn."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2013.05.018","article-title":"Examining the value of lexical retrieval treatment in primary progressive aphasia: Two positive cases","volume":"127","author":"Henry","year":"2013","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1080\/09602011.2018.1518780","article-title":"Treatment for spoken and written word retrieval in the semantic variant of primary progressive aphasia","volume":"30","author":"Krajenbrink","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1080\/02687038.2016.1197558","article-title":"\u201cDo you have mowing the lawn?\u201d\u2014Improvements in word retrieval and grammar following constraint-induced language therapy in primary progressive aphasia","volume":"31","author":"Hameister","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aphasiology"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2010.03.003","article-title":"When one can write SALTO as noun but not as verb: A grammatical category-specific, modality-specific deficit","volume":"114","author":"Ivanova","year":"2010","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2008.01.006","article-title":"Grammatical category-specific deficits in bilingual aphasia","volume":"107","author":"Hernandez","year":"2008","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.1162\/089892902320474544","article-title":"Modality-Specific Deterioration in Naming Verbs in Nonfluent Primary Progressive Aphasia","volume":"14","author":"Hillis","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1035","DOI":"10.1080\/02687030600739539","article-title":"Syntactic impairments can emerge later: Progressive agrammatic agraphia and syntactic comprehension impairment","volume":"20","author":"Code","year":"2006","journal-title":"Aphasiology"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"fcad202","DOI":"10.1093\/braincomms\/fcad202","article-title":"Automated analysis of written language in the three variants of primary progressive aphasia","volume":"5","author":"Rezaii","year":"2023","journal-title":"Brain Commun."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1080\/09602011.2021.1879174","article-title":"Exploring the effects of verb and noun treatment on verb phrase production in primary progressive aphasia: A series of single case experimental design studies","volume":"32","author":"Nickels","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2466","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awz157","article-title":"Progressive agrammatic aphasia without apraxia of speech as a distinct syndrome","volume":"142","author":"Tetzloff","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1006\/nimg.2001.0978","article-title":"Automated Anatomical Labeling of Activations in SPM using a Macroscopic Anatomical Parcellation of the MNI MRI Single-Subject Brain","volume":"15","author":"Landeau","year":"2002","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1766","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_00244","article-title":"Both the Middle Temporal Gyrus and the Ventral Anterior Temporal Area Are Crucial for Multimodal Semantic Processing: Distortion-corrected fMRI Evidence for a Double Gradient of Information Convergence in the Temporal Lobes","volume":"24","author":"Visser","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boschi, V., Catrical\u00e0, E., Consonni, M., Chesi, C., Moro, A., and Cappa, S.F. (2017). Connected speech in Neurodegenerative Language Disorders: A Review. Front. Psychol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.00269"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e224","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000006788","article-title":"Word comprehension in temporal cortex and Wernicke area: A PPA perspective","volume":"92","author":"Mesulam","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2069","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awq129","article-title":"Connected speech production in three variants of primary progressive aphasia","volume":"133","author":"Wilson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105655","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2025.105655","article-title":"Dysgraphia in Japanese patients with primary progressive aphasia","volume":"271","author":"Ota","year":"2025","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1405","DOI":"10.1212\/01.wnl.0000210435.72614.38","article-title":"Trying to tell a tale: Discourse impairments in progressive aphasia and frontotemporal dementia","volume":"66","author":"Ash","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ash, S., and Grossman, M. (2015). Why study connected speech production. Cognitive Neuroscience of Natural Language Use, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781107323667.003"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1375","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-021-10689-1","article-title":"The natural history of primary progressive aphasia: Beyond aphasia","volume":"269","author":"Ulugut","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1186\/s13195-024-01403-0","article-title":"Heterogeneity and overlap in the continuum of linguistic profile of logopenic and semantic variants of primary progressive aphasia: A Profile Analysis based on Multidimensional Scaling study","volume":"16","author":"Santi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2734","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awp207","article-title":"Making sense of progressive non-fluent aphasia: An analysis of conversational speech","volume":"132","author":"Knibb","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2009.03.007","article-title":"The relation between content and structure in language production: An analysis of speech errors in semantic dementia","volume":"110","author":"Meteyard","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain Lang."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1080\/02687038.2012.710318","article-title":"Abnormalities of connected speech in the non-semantic variants of primary progressive aphasia","volume":"26","author":"Sajjadi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Aphasiology"},{"key":"ref_86","first-page":"e2816","article-title":"Neural correlates of naming errors across different neurodegenerative diseases: An FDG-PET study","volume":"95","author":"Polito","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101760","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2022.101760","article-title":"Characterization of the logopenic variant of primary progressive aphasia: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"82","author":"Conca","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1080\/13554799708405014","article-title":"Surface dyslexia in an Italian patient with semantic dementia","volume":"3","author":"Rozzini","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neurocase"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Masterson, J., Coltheart, M., and Meara, P. (2017). Surface dyslexia in a language without irregularly spelled words. Surface Dyslexia, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315108346-12"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1111\/jnp.12400","article-title":"Resolving the problem of surface dyslexia in Italian through inflection of irregular verbs","volume":"19","author":"Licciardo","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2022.09.015","article-title":"Over-reliance on English hinders cognitive science","volume":"26","author":"Blasi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.1996.8.2.135","article-title":"Progressive nonfluent aphasia: Language, cognitive, and PET measures contrasted with probable Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"8","author":"Grossman","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroling.2015.12.002","article-title":"A longitudinal linguistic analysis of written text production in a case of semantic variant primary progressive aphasia","volume":"39","author":"Heitkamp","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurolinguistics"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1080\/13554794.2021.1924208","article-title":"\u201cMore than words\u201d\u2014Longitudinal linguistic changes in the works of a writer diagnosed with semantic dementia","volume":"27","author":"Hwang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurocase"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1080\/02687038.2015.1081142","article-title":"Telerehabilitation of anomia in primary progressive aphasia","volume":"30","author":"Meyer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Aphasiology"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1182","DOI":"10.1080\/02687038.2021.1959015","article-title":"Behavioural and neurophysiological responses to written naming treatment and high definition tDCS: A case study in advanced primary progressive aphasia","volume":"36","author":"Fernandez","year":"2022","journal-title":"Aphasiology"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pjnns.2015.06.001","article-title":"Is descriptive writing useful in the differential diagnosis of logopenic variant of primary progressive aphasia, Alzheimer\u2019s disease and mild cognitive impairment?","volume":"49","author":"Sitek","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurol. Neurochir. Polska"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pjnns.2015.05.004","article-title":"Writing in Richardson variant of progressive supranuclear palsy in comparison to progressive non-fluent aphasia","volume":"49","author":"Sitek","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurol. Neurochir. Polska"}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/16\/4\/420\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T12:14:20Z","timestamp":1776428060000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/16\/4\/420"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]]},"references-count":98,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci16040420"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci16040420","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]]}}}