{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T12:27:37Z","timestamp":1785414457844,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777507200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["32071051"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32071051"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["32071051"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32071051"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Rhythmic knowledge enables the precise timing of actions in dynamic environments. Although rhythm learning has been extensively studied, it remains debated whether such learning arises primarily from the perceptual encoding of rhythmic inputs or from the repetitive execution of periodic actions. Methods: To address this question, we developed a temporal-rhythm serial reaction time (TR-SRT) paradigm that dissociates rhythmic structures in perceptual inputs from the timing of motor responses. Across three experiments, participants learned rhythms under visuomotor (Experiment 1, N = 27), visual-only (Experiment 2, N = 26), or motor-only (Experiment 3, N = 26) conditions while electroencephalography was recorded. Results: Behavioral learning slopes revealed robust rhythm learning in both the visuomotor and visual-only conditions, whereas no learning emerged when rhythmic structure was confined to motor timing alone. Post-learning awareness tests further indicated that the acquired rhythmic knowledge was predominantly implicit. Consistently, global (whole-brain) theta-band magnitude (4.8\u20135.2 Hz) was enhanced only in the conditions that supported rhythm learning. Conclusions: These findings indicate that rhythm learning depends primarily on perceptual temporal structure rather than the repetition of rhythmic actions and identify increased global theta oscillations as a neural signature of this perceptually driven and largely implicit learning process.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci16050489","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T13:32:21Z","timestamp":1777555941000},"page":"489","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Perceptual Temporal Structure Supports Rhythm Learning and Enhances Theta Oscillations When Perception and Action Are Dissociated"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0407-5686","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xue","family":"Weng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5440-8728","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yang","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fudan Institute on Ageing, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China"},{"name":"Ministry of Education (MOE) Laboratory for National Development and Intelligent Governance, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China"},{"name":"Silver-X MOE Philosophy & Social Sciences Laboratory, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xinyue","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Haoran","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fudan Institute on Ageing, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China"},{"name":"Ministry of Education (MOE) Laboratory for National Development and Intelligent Governance, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lin","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology and Cognitive Science, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiuyan","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fudan Institute on Ageing, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China"},{"name":"Ministry of Education (MOE) Laboratory for National Development and Intelligent Governance, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn.2017.141","article-title":"Anticipated moments: Temporal structure in attention","volume":"19","author":"Nobre","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. 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