{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T03:04:23Z","timestamp":1780628663985,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,31]],"date-time":"2026-05-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780185600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Chronic exposure to addictive substances induces persistent alterations in neural dynamics, reflecting maladaptive brain plasticity. While such changes are well documented using neuroimaging techniques, their electrophysiological signatures\u2014particularly those derived from nonlinear EEG complexity\u2014remain insufficiently explored across diverse substance use profiles. This preliminary study aims to investigate whether nonlinear EEG complexity measures can serve as sensitive biomarkers of maladaptive plasticity in substance use disorder (SUD) across multiple substance categories. Methods: A total of 350 participants were included and categorized into seven groups (n = 50 each): six substance use groups (cannabis, heroin, heroin\u2013cannabis, methamphetamine\u2013cannabis, methamphetamine\u2013heroin, and multi-drug) and one control group without a diagnosis of substance use disorder. Resting state EEG signals were recorded using an eight-channel system. Four nonlinear features, Largest Lyapunov Exponent (LLE), Fractal Dimension (FD), Hurst Exponent (HE), and Kolmogorov Complexity (KC) were extracted. Statistical analysis was performed using two-way ANOVA, and classification was conducted using the K Nearest Neighbour (KNN) algorithm. Results: Significant group differences (p &lt; 0.05) were observed across all nonlinear features. Control participants without a diagnosis of substance use disorder consistently exhibited higher complexity values compared to substance use groups, indicating reduced neural dynamical variability associated with the history of sustained substance uses over multiple years. Region wise analysis revealed that frontal and central cortical areas linked to motor planning and sensorimotor integration were particularly affected. The KNN classifier achieved an accuracy of 98.4%, sensitivity of 100%, and specificity of 96.8%. Conclusions: Nonlinear EEG complexity measures provide a robust electrophysiological marker of substance induced maladaptive brain plasticity. The observed reduction in complexity reflects impaired neural adaptability, particularly within motor control networks. These findings highlight the potential of EEG based complexity metrics for objective assessment, classification, and neurorehabilitation monitoring in substance use disorders.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci16060603","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T06:17:31Z","timestamp":1780467451000},"page":"603","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Nonlinear EEG Complexity as a Marker of Maladaptive Brain Plasticity in Substance Use Disorders: A Multi-Group Machine Learning Classification Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Mashal","family":"Fatima","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Riphah International University, Islamabad 44035, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1483-1801","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Faraz","family":"Akram","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Riphah International University, Islamabad 44035, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8752-7224","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Imran Khan","family":"Niazi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Chiropractic Research, New Zealand College of Chiropractic, Auckland 1060, New Zealand"},{"name":"Faculty of Health & Environmental Sciences, Health & Rehabilitation Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 1010, New Zealand"},{"name":"Centre for Sensory-Motor Interactions, Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, 9220 Aalborg, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (2023, September 01). 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