{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T06:02:27Z","timestamp":1782972147705,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]],"date-time":"2026-06-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782518400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003196","name":"Italian Ministry of Health","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003196","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Anorexia Nervosa (AN) is a severe eating disorder. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) are two Neurodevelopmental Disorders (NDDs), frequently co-occurring with each other (ADHD+ASD). The present study aimed to clarify cognitive and behavioral profiles, with a specific focus on emotional regulation, executive functions and empathy, in three groups of female adolescents. Methods: A total of 102 female adolescents aged 12\u201318 years were recruited. Participants were divided into three groups (AN: n = 30, ADHD: n = 47, ADHD+ASD: n = 25). All participants underwent a psychometric and a multidimensional clinical assessment. Group differences were analyzed through ANOVA with Bonferroni corrections. Results: Adolescents with ADHD+ASD scored significantly higher than the ADHD group in verbal comprehension. The AN group performed significantly better than both the ADHD and ADHD+ASD groups in working memory, and significantly better than the ADHD+ASD group in processing speed. Both the AN and ADHD+ASD groups were characterized by significantly greater impairment in global functioning than the ADHD group. No significant differences were found among the three groups on the Attention Switching, Attention to Detail, and Imagination subscales of the Autism Spectrum Quotient. Behaviorally, AN participants exhibited higher internalizing symptoms (anxiety and depression), the ADHD group presented more prominent externalizing behaviors (aggressive, rule-breaking, and attention problems), and the comorbid ADHD+ASD group demonstrated significantly more pronounced social problems. Most measures used to assess emotional dysregulation did not reveal significant differences among the three groups. Both the ADHD and ADHD+ASD groups showed significantly greater impairment in executive functioning than the AN group. Regarding empathic abilities, mixed results emerged. Conclusions: Findings suggest the coexistence of condition-specific features and shared vulnerabilities in female adolescents with AN, ADHD, and ADHD+ASD. These data underscore the importance of investigating the female phenotype from a transdiagnostic perspective to facilitate early detection and tailored interventions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci16070676","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T02:11:57Z","timestamp":1782785517000},"page":"676","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["A Transdiagnostic Comparison of Emotional Regulation, Executive Functions, and Empathy in Three Groups of Female Adolescents: With Anorexia Nervosa, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, and Comorbid Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Autism Spectrum Disorder"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Francesca","family":"Olzi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Viale del Tirreno 331, 56128 Pisa, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniela","family":"Raucci","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Viale del Tirreno 331, 56128 Pisa, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3996-3827","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Antonio","family":"Narzisi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Viale del Tirreno 331, 56128 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9140-2675","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena","family":"Valente","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Viale del Tirreno 331, 56128 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesca","family":"Ditaranto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Viale del Tirreno 331, 56128 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vittorio","family":"Belmonti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Viale del Tirreno 331, 56128 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Raffaella","family":"Tancredi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Viale del Tirreno 331, 56128 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chiara","family":"Pfanner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Viale del Tirreno 331, 56128 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0224-0628","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emanuela","family":"Inguaggiato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Viale del Tirreno 331, 56128 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Arianna","family":"Villafranca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Viale del Tirreno 331, 56128 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Francesca","family":"Lenzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Viale del Tirreno 331, 56128 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7139-5420","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stefano","family":"Berloffa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Viale del Tirreno 331, 56128 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Greta","family":"Tolomei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Viale del Tirreno 331, 56128 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4164-3101","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valentina","family":"Viglione","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Viale del Tirreno 331, 56128 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7770-926X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gabriele","family":"Masi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Viale del Tirreno 331, 56128 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3170-1187","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Annarita","family":"Milone","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Viale del Tirreno 331, 56128 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5492-8929","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pamela","family":"Fantozzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IRCCS Fondazione Stella Maris, Viale del Tirreno 331, 56128 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2022). 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