{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,23]],"date-time":"2026-09-23T23:07:55Z","timestamp":1790204875403,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782777600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background\/Aim: Motor skill acquisition is the foundation of athletic performance, from the novice learning a new technique to the elite athlete executing complex movements automatically under pressure. Although classical models have defined the neural substrates of motor control\u2014the cerebellum for error correction, the basal ganglia for action selection, and the primary motor cortex (M1) for execution\u2014emerging evidence suggests that motor learning is the result of the dynamic interaction of multiple parallel processes rather than a linear hierarchy. This narrative review integrates classical neuroanatomical knowledge with contemporary findings on multisite plasticity, with a particular focus on sport-specific adaptations. Methods: We examined three core learning mechanisms operating in parallel: error-based learning (cerebellar-dependent, driven by sensory prediction errors), reinforcement learning (striatal-dependent, driven by reward prediction errors and dopamine), and use-dependent learning (cortical-dependent, driven by mere repetition). We also summarize the biochemical pathways supporting these learning processes, including glutamatergic LTP-like cortical plasticity, cerebellar mGluR1\u2013PKC\u2013LTD signaling, dopaminergic corticostriatal plasticity, BDNF\u2013TrkB-dependent neurotrophic mechanisms, growth-factor signaling, and exercise-induced muscle\u2013brain communication. Results: We then propose a spatiotemporal model in which the relative contribution of each network shifts dynamically across the three stages of skill acquisition, from the early cognitive\/strategic phase to the late automatic phase characteristic of elite performance. At the molecular level, these stage-dependent adaptations are supported by synaptic strengthening and weakening mechanisms, reward-dependent dopamine signaling, neurotrophic and growth-factor-mediated remodeling, and peripheral metabolic\/myokine signals that modulate brain plasticity during training and recovery. Special attention is given to contextual and sport-specific adaptations, using the paradigmatic example of elite swimmers who demonstrate enhanced short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) selectively in the aquatic environment, reflecting long-term sport-induced neuroplasticity. Conclusions: Understanding these dynamic network mechanisms has direct implications for coaching, training periodization, and the development of targeted neuromodulatory interventions to accelerate skill acquisition and optimize athletic performance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci16070694","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,1]],"date-time":"2026-07-01T00:50:37Z","timestamp":1782867037000},"page":"694","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Biochemical Pathways of Neuroplasticity in Sport Skill Acquisition: From Neuroscience to Coaching Practice"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0326-5560","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrizia","family":"Proia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-6573-6867","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandro","family":"Sclafani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Sport and Health University Research Institute (iMUDS), University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-3526-6382","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrea","family":"Pagliaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Alioto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-7572-2763","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessia","family":"Boatta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Sciences and Promotion of the Quality of Life, San Raffaele University, 00166 Rome, Italy"},{"name":"Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, National Research Council (CNR), 90146 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5160-5865","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara","family":"Baldassano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2774-4950","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giuseppe","family":"Messina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Sciences and Promotion of the Quality of Life, San Raffaele University, 00166 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Erika","family":"Loi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9643-5532","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cristina","family":"Cortis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Human Sciences, Society and Health, University of Cassino and Lazio Meridionale, 03043 Cassino, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Armando","family":"Sangiorgio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dipartimento di Scienze Umanistiche, Universit\u00e0 Telematica Pegaso, Isola F2, Via Porzio, 80143 Napoli, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6512-3840","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alessandra","family":"Amato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sport and Exercise Sciences Research Unit, Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human Movement, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Neural Effects of the Repetitions Process during the Athletic Training Program on the Hippocampus and Prefrontal Cortex of the Brain","volume":"15","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. 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