{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T05:04:49Z","timestamp":1784091889479,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,12]],"date-time":"2026-07-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783814400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: Maintaining postural stability requires the integration of multisensory information, including visual, vestibular, and somatosensory inputs. This study aimed to investigate the effects of narrowband noise across different frequency bands on static postural balance and cortical activation in healthy adults. Methods: Twenty healthy adults participated in a repeated-measures experiment in which they maintained a tandem stance with eyes closed under four conditions: no sound, low-frequency narrowband noise (500 Hz), mid-frequency narrowband noise (2000 Hz), and high-frequency narrowband noise (5000 Hz). Static balance was assessed using center of pressure parameters, including sway length, ellipse surface, delta X, and delta Y, recorded via a pressure measurement platform. Cortical activation in the premotor cortex (PMC), frontal eye fields (FEF), superior temporal gyrus (STG), and middle temporal gyrus (MTG) was measured simultaneously using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Results: Mid-frequency narrowband noise significantly improved postural stability, as evidenced by reductions in sway length, ellipse surface, and delta Y compared to the high-frequency and no-sound conditions (p &lt; 0.05). In contrast, high-frequency narrowband noise consistently produced the greatest postural instability, with significantly larger ellipse surface and delta Y values (p &lt; 0.05). Regarding cortical activation, high-frequency stimulation induced significantly greater bilateral activation in the PMC compared to low-frequency stimulation, while all auditory conditions elicited widespread activation across PMC, STG, and MTG. Conclusions: These findings suggest that the frequency characteristics of auditory stimulation exert differential neurophysiological effects on balance control. Mid-frequency narrowband noise may enhance static balance by facilitating sensorimotor integration, whereas high-frequency narrowband noise may induce PMC hyperactivation, potentially contributing to postural instability.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci16070739","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T09:51:09Z","timestamp":1783936269000},"page":"739","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Effects of Frequency-Labeled Narrowband Noise on Postural Stability and Cortical Activation: An fNIRS Study"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Sang Seok","family":"Yeo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physical Therapy, College of Health Sciences, Dankook University, 119, Dandae-ro, Dongnam-gu, Cheonan-si 31116, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zi Han","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health, Graduate School, Dankook University, 119, Dandae-ro, Dongnam-gu, Cheonan-si 31116, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dong Hyun","family":"Byun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Special Creative Convergence, College of Rehabilitation Sciences, Daegu University, Daegu-daero 201, Jillyang-eup, Gyeongsan-si 38453, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1093\/ptj\/73.6.346","article-title":"A study of the clinical test of sensory interaction and balance","volume":"73","author":"Cohen","year":"1993","journal-title":"Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1881","DOI":"10.1093\/ptj\/67.12.1881","article-title":"Clinical measurement of postural control in adults","volume":"67","author":"Horak","year":"1987","journal-title":"Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1093\/ptj\/77.6.619","article-title":"The role of vision and spatial orientation in the maintenance of posture","volume":"77","author":"Wade","year":"1997","journal-title":"Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"M263","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/50A.5.M263","article-title":"Dynamic balance in older persons: Effects of reduced visual and proprioceptive input","volume":"50","author":"Judge","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00364463","article-title":"The influence of stationary auditory fields on postural sway behaviour in man","volume":"63","author":"Raper","year":"1991","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.2114\/jpa.23.105","article-title":"The effect of maximal finger tapping on cerebral activation","volume":"23","author":"Kuboyama","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Anthropol. Appl. Human. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.3233\/VES-160599","article-title":"Auditory contributions to maintaining balance","volume":"26","author":"Stevens","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Vestib. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Izzetoglu, K., Yurtsever, G., Bozkurt, A., and Bunce, S. (2003). Functional brain monitoring via NIR based optical spectroscopy. Proceedings of the IEEE 29th Annual Northeast Bioengineering Conferences, Newark, NJ, USA, 22\u201323 March 2003, IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/NEBC.2003.1216132"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"840","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2007.01749.x","article-title":"Listen to the noise: Noise is beneficial for cognitive performance in ADHD","volume":"48","author":"Smart","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Child. Psychol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.3766\/jaaa.24.9.5","article-title":"Cortical auditory-evoked potentials (CAEPs) in adults in response to filtered speech stimuli","volume":"24","author":"Carter","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Audiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thaut, M. (2013). Rhythm, Music, and the Brain: Scientific Foundations and Clinical Applications, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203958827"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-006-0709-y","article-title":"Auditory biofeedback substitutes for loss of sensory information in maintaining stance","volume":"178","author":"Dozza","year":"2007","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1853","DOI":"10.1097\/00001756-200210280-00004","article-title":"Noise-enhanced balance control in older adults","volume":"13","author":"Gravelle","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neuroreport"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"96","article-title":"The influence of sounds on posture control","volume":"17","author":"Siedlecka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Bioeng. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-8-67","article-title":"Effects of sound on postural stability during quiet standing","volume":"8","author":"Park","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.1177\/1420326X17719490","article-title":"The effects of sound loudness on subjective feeling, sympathovagal balance and brain activity","volume":"27","author":"Dai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Indoor Built Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13108","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-17055-9","article-title":"Stimulation with acoustic white noise enhances motor excitability and sensorimotor integration","volume":"12","author":"Pellegrino","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1944","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2003.07.034","article-title":"Functional segregation of the temporal lobes into highly differentiated subsystems for auditory perception: An auditory rapid event-related fMRI-task","volume":"20","author":"Specht","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"012101","article-title":"Best practices for fNIRS publications","volume":"8","author":"Scholkmann","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurophotonics"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1186","DOI":"10.1006\/nimg.2001.0905","article-title":"Cortical mapping of gait in humans: A near-infrared spectroscopic topography study","volume":"14","author":"Miyai","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1020","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2004.07.002","article-title":"Prefrontal and premotor cortices are involved in adapting walking and running speed on the treadmill: An optical imaging study","volume":"23","author":"Suzuki","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1155\/2000\/421719","article-title":"Stereotaxic display of brain lesions","volume":"12","author":"Rorden","year":"2000","journal-title":"Behav. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3341","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-21716-z","article-title":"fNIRS Optodes\u2019 Location Decider (fOLD): A toolbox for probe arrangement guided by brain regions-of-interest","volume":"8","author":"Balardin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"916","DOI":"10.1080\/00016480500546375","article-title":"The effects of masking on the activation of auditory-associated cortex during speech listening in white noise","volume":"126","author":"Hwang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Acta Otolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.18857\/jkpt.2023.35.5.156","article-title":"Difference in the static postural control according to the subjective visual vertical deviation and head orientations","volume":"35","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Korean Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1123\/mc.2017-0074","article-title":"Effects of foot placement on postural sway in the anteroposterior and mediolateral directions","volume":"23","author":"Gibbons","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mot. Control"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1080\/00016489.2022.2047222","article-title":"Static posturographic balance in neurotologic patients may be associated with middle-high-frequency hearing levels during ageing process","volume":"142","author":"Maeda","year":"2022","journal-title":"Acta Otolaryngol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envres.2016.06.016","article-title":"Cardiovascular and stress responses to short-term noise exposures-A panel study in healthy males","volume":"150","author":"Walker","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5462","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.15393","article-title":"Structure, function and connectivity fingerprints of the frontal eye field versus the inferior frontal junction: A comprehensive comparison","volume":"54","author":"Bedini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e14533","DOI":"10.14814\/phy2.14533","article-title":"Spatiotemporal transformations for gaze control","volume":"8","author":"Sajad","year":"2020","journal-title":"Physiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"e69833","article-title":"From Sound to Meaning: Navigating Wernicke\u2019s Area in Language Processing","volume":"16","author":"Wani","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cureus"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ohbayashi, M. (2021). The Roles of the Cortical Motor Areas in Sequential Movements. Front. Behav. Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnbeh.2021.640659"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"2","article-title":"Berg balance scale","volume":"73","author":"Berg","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"169","article-title":"Romberg\u2019s test","volume":"49","author":"Khasnis","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Postgrad. Med."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2022.119175","article-title":"Auditory driven gamma synchrony is associated with cortical thickness in widespread cortical areas","volume":"255","author":"Schuler","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tretyakova, V., Pavlova, A., Arapov, V., Rytikova, A., Vorobiova, A., Prokofyev, A., Chernyshev, B., and Stroganova, T. (2025). Newly acquired word-action associations trigger auditory cortex activation during movement preparation: Implications for Hebbian plasticity in action word learning. PLoS ONE, 20.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0325977"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2009.04556.x","article-title":"The role of auditory and premotor cortex in sensorimotor transformations","volume":"1169","author":"Chen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Indovina, I., Passamonti, L., Mucci, V., Chiarella, G., Lacquaniti, F., and Staab, J.P. (2021). Brain Correlates of Persistent Postural-Perceptual Dizziness: A Review of Neuroimaging Studies. J. Clin. Med., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm10184274"}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/16\/7\/739\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,15]],"date-time":"2026-07-15T04:14:26Z","timestamp":1784088866000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/16\/7\/739"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,12]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci16070739"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci16070739","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,12]]}}}