{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,20]],"date-time":"2026-06-20T15:37:52Z","timestamp":1781969872175,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,8,16]],"date-time":"2016-08-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1471305600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The fetal and neonatal periods are critical and sensitive periods for neurodevelopment, and involve rapid brain growth in addition to natural programmed cell death (i.e., apoptosis) and synaptic pruning. Apoptosis is an important process for neurodevelopment, preventing redundant, faulty, or unused neurons from cluttering the developing brain. However, animal studies have shown massive neuronal cell death by apoptosis can also be caused by exposure to several classes of drugs, namely gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) agonists and N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) antagonists that are commonly used in pediatric anesthesia. This form of neurotoxic insult could cause a major disruption in brain development with the potential to permanently shape behavior and cognitive ability. Evidence does suggest that psychoactive drugs alter neurodevelopment and synaptic plasticity in the animal brain, which, in the human brain, may translate to permanent neurodevelopmental changes associated with long-term intellectual disability. This paper reviews the seminal animal research on drug-induced developmental apoptosis and the subsequent clinical studies that have been conducted thus far. In humans, there is growing evidence that suggests anesthetics have the potential to harm the developing brain, but the long-term outcome is not definitive and causality has not been determined. The consensus is that there is more work to be done using both animal models and human clinical studies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci6030032","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,8,16]],"date-time":"2016-08-16T10:03:21Z","timestamp":1471341801000},"page":"32","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":34,"title":["From Drug-Induced Developmental Neuroapoptosis to Pediatric Anesthetic Neurotoxicity\u2014Where Are We Now?"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"6","author":[{"given":"Catherine","family":"Creeley","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Fredonia, Fredonia, NY 14063, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,8,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1525","DOI":"10.1016\/0896-6273(89)90040-8","article-title":"Trophic factors and neuronal survival","volume":"2","author":"Barde","year":"1989","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"269","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ne.03.030180.001413","article-title":"Trophic interactions in neurogenesis: A personal historical account","volume":"3","author":"Hamburger","year":"1980","journal-title":"Ann. 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