{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,26]],"date-time":"2026-03-26T16:23:33Z","timestamp":1774542213419,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,4]],"date-time":"2017-02-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1486166400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study is the first to explore spontaneous eye blink rate (sEBR) in individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). We investigated the connection between the magnitude of flanker interference in PTSD participants and sEBR during performance on a modified version of the Eriksen flanker task. As a peripheral measure of cognitive control and dopaminergic function, sEBR may illuminate the relationship between PTSD and executive function. Findings revealed a positive relationship between sEBR and flanker interference in participants diagnosed with PTSD, to both threat-related and neutral stimuli, whereas this relationship was negative in participants exposed to trauma but without PTSD and in healthy controls. Although our results are suggestive of sEBR as a potential physiological index of emotional management in PTSD, most of the correlations were not significant, indicating that further research with a larger sample is needed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci7020016","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,6]],"date-time":"2017-02-06T11:29:27Z","timestamp":1486380567000},"page":"16","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Inhibitory Control under Threat: The Role of Spontaneous Eye Blinks in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8742-4951","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mikael","family":"Rubin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, City College, City University of New York, New York, NY 10017, USA"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78705, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Denise","family":"Hien","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, City College, City University of New York, New York, NY 10017, USA"},{"name":"Derner Institute of Advanced Psychological Studies, Adelphi University, South Avenue, Garden City, NY 11530, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dipanjana","family":"Das","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, City College, City University of New York, New York, NY 10017, USA"},{"name":"Department of Psychological &amp; Brain Sciences, University of California at Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Robert","family":"Melara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, City College, City University of New York, New York, NY 10017, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.62.6.617","article-title":"Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication","volume":"62","author":"Kessler","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comppsych.2011.12.001","article-title":"Attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder comorbidity in a sample of veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"53","author":"Harrington","year":"2012","journal-title":"Compr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1037\/0894-4105.21.3.275","article-title":"Attentional networks reveal executive function deficits in posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"21","author":"Leskin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617712000458","article-title":"Impaired Response Inhibition in Veterans with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Mild Traumatic Brain Injury","volume":"18","author":"Swick","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3223(02)01505-6","article-title":"Cerebral Function in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder during Verbal Working Memory Updating: A Positron Emission Tomography Study","volume":"53","author":"Clark","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.1984.tb02312.x","article-title":"The Endogenous Eyeblink","volume":"21","author":"Walrath","year":"1984","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2005.06.025","article-title":"Blinking suppresses the neural response to unchanging retinal stimulation","volume":"15","author":"Bristow","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2005.01.077","article-title":"Neural correlates of eye blinking; improved by simultaneous fMRI and EOG measurement","volume":"381","author":"Yoon","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-4694(94)00259-N","article-title":"Intracerebral potentials to rare target and distractor auditory and visual stimuli. I. Superior temporal plane and parietal lobe","volume":"94","author":"Halgren","year":"1995","journal-title":"Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(89)90466-6","article-title":"Contributions of temporal-parietal junction to the human auditory P3","volume":"502","author":"Knight","year":"1989","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-4694(97)00119-3","article-title":"Generators of the late cognitive potentials in auditory and visual oddball tasks","volume":"106","author":"Halgren","year":"1998","journal-title":"Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1100301","article-title":"The role of the medial frontal cortex in cognitive control","volume":"306","author":"Ridderinkhof","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.142.1.43","article-title":"An inverse correlation between spontaneous eye-blink rate and platelet monoamine oxidase activity","volume":"142","author":"Karson","year":"1983","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1016\/0091-3057(91)90255-Z","article-title":"MPTP lesions and dopaminergic drugs alter eye blink rate in African green monkeys","volume":"38","author":"Lawrence","year":"1991","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3565(25)20364-0","article-title":"D1 and D2 dopamine receptors independently regulate spontaneous blink rate in the vervet monkey","volume":"259","author":"Elsworth","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1032","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(95)00315-0","article-title":"Blink rate in children with attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder","volume":"39","author":"Caplan","year":"1996","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2003.10.005","article-title":"Endogenous eye blinks in preadolescents: Relationship to information processing and performance","volume":"66","author":"Pivik","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.2466\/pms.1993.77.1.55","article-title":"Blink activity and task difficulty","volume":"77","author":"Tanaka","year":"1993","journal-title":"Percept. Mot. Skills"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.1985.tb01658.x","article-title":"Blink activity in a discrimination task as a function of stimulus modality and schedule of presentation","volume":"22","author":"Goldstein","year":"1985","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.2466\/pms.1996.82.3.835","article-title":"Eyeblink activity in a word-naming task as a function of semantic priming and cognitive load","volume":"82","author":"Ohira","year":"1996","journal-title":"Percept. Mot. Skills"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.2008.00681.x","article-title":"Blink before and after you think: Blinks occur prior to and following cognitive load indexed by pupillary responses","volume":"45","author":"Siegle","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.2466\/pms.98.1.131-140","article-title":"Eyeblink activity as an index of cognitive processing: Temporal distribution of eyeblinks as an indicator of expectancy in semantic priming","volume":"98","author":"Ichikawa","year":"2004","journal-title":"Percept. Motor Skills"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03195311","article-title":"Working memory and executive function: The influence of content and load on the control of attention","volume":"33","author":"Hester","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.3758\/s13415-012-0138-2","article-title":"Blinking predicts enhanced cognitive control","volume":"13","author":"Notebaert","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2015.04.010","article-title":"Dopamine and executive function: Increased spontaneous eye blink rates correlate with better set-shifting and inhibition, but poorer updating","volume":"96","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychophysiol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.110.3.422","article-title":"Driven by information: A tectonic theory of Stroop effects","volume":"110","author":"Melara","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-1523.28.2.279","article-title":"The duality of selection: Excitatory and inhibitory processes in auditory selective attention","volume":"28","author":"Melara","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1771","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2011.02.055","article-title":"Neural correlates of recovery from post-traumatic stress disorder: A longitudinal fMRI investigation of memory encoding","volume":"49","author":"Dickie","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2008.01.007","article-title":"An fMRI investigation of memory encoding in PTSD: Influence of symptom severity","volume":"46","author":"Dickie","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"575","DOI":"10.1007\/s00406-013-0394-3","article-title":"Regional cerebral changes and functional connectivity during the observation of negative emotional stimuli in subjects with post-traumatic stress disorder","volume":"263","author":"Mazza","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.3928\/00485713-20090527-01","article-title":"Neurobiology of PTSD: A Review of Neuroimaging Findings","volume":"39","author":"Garfinkel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychiatr. Ann."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1038\/nn2032","article-title":"Focal brain damage protects against post-traumatic stress disorder in combat veterans","volume":"11","author":"Koenigs","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2011.11.096","article-title":"The adaptive threat bias in anxiety: Amygdala-dorsomedial prefrontal cortex coupling and aversive amplification","volume":"60","author":"Robinson","year":"2012","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/S0079-6123(07)67011-3","article-title":"The functional neuroanatomy of PTSD: A critical review","volume":"167","author":"Liberzon","year":"2008","journal-title":"Prog. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Melara, R.D., Ruglass, L., Fertuck, E., and Hien, D.A. (2017). Self-Regulation of Threat in Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: Associations between Inhibitory Control and Dissociative Symptomatology. BMC Public Health, in preparation.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2018.01.017"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03203267","article-title":"Effects of noise letters upon the identification of a target letter in a nonsearch task","volume":"16","author":"Eriksen","year":"1974","journal-title":"Percept. Psychophys."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"75","article-title":"The development of a Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale","volume":"8","author":"Blake","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Traum. Stress"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"First, M.B., and Gibbon, M. (2004). The Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders (SCID-I) and the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis II Disorders (SCID-II), John Wiley & Sons Inc."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Briere, J. (2002). Multiscale Dissociation Inventory (MDI), Psychological Assessment Resources."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Brown, L., Sherbenou, R.J., and Johnsen, S.K. (1997). Test of Non-Verbal Intelligence (TONI-3), Pro-Ed. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beck, A.T., Steer, R.A., and Brown, G.K. (1996). Manual for the Beck Depression Inventory-II, Psychological Corporation.","DOI":"10.1037\/t00742-000"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2000). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-IV-TR Fourth Edition (Text Revision), American Psychiatric Association. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2008.05.006","article-title":"The NimStim set of facial expressions: Judgments from untrained research participants","volume":"168","author":"Tottenham","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"Lang, P.J., Bradley, M.M., and Cuthbert, B.N. International Affective Picture System (IAPS): Technical Manual and Affective Ratings. Available online: http:\/\/www2.unifesp.br\/dpsicobio\/Nova_versao_pagina_psicobio\/adap\/instructions.pdf."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Garner, W.R. (1974). The Processing of Information and Structure, Erlbaum."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Yoder, N. PeakFinder. Available online: https:\/\/www.mathworks.com\/matlabcentral\/fileexchange\/25500-peakfinder-x0--sel--thresh--extrema--includeendpoints--interpolate-?requestedDomain=www.mathworks.com."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2011.08.004","article-title":"Dopamine activation in Neuroticism as measured by spontaneous eye blink rate","volume":"105","author":"Barbato","year":"2012","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2009.83","article-title":"The Neurocircuitry of Fear, Stress, and Anxiety Disorders","volume":"35","author":"Shin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Badgaiyan, R.D., Wack, D., and Wack, D. (2011). Evidence of Dopaminergic Processing of Executive Inhibition. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0028075"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2011.03.028","article-title":"Inverted-U\u2013Shaped Dopamine Actions on Human Working Memory and Cognitive Control","volume":"69","author":"Cools","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(93)90302-T","article-title":"Elevated plasma dopamine in posttraumatic stress disorder: A preliminary report","volume":"33","author":"Hamner","year":"1993","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-4328(03)00074-3","article-title":"Urinary dopamine and turn bias in traumatized women with and without PTSD symptoms","volume":"144","author":"Glover","year":"2003","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2337","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291712000499","article-title":"Treatment effects on insular and anterior cingulate cortex activation during classic and emotional Stroop interference in child abuse-related complex post-traumatic stress disorder","volume":"42","author":"Thomaes","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2008.10.010","article-title":"Dopamine modulates neural networks involved in effort-based decision-making","volume":"33","author":"Assadi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2011.03.007","article-title":"The emotional Stroop task and posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis","volume":"31","author":"Cisler","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1080\/02699930341000158","article-title":"BRIEF REPORT Time course of attentional bias for threat scenes: Testing the vigilance-avoidance hypothesis","volume":"18","author":"Mogg","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cogn. Emot."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.3402\/ejpt.v1i0.5467","article-title":"Fear conditioning and early life vulnerabilities: Two distinct pathways of emotional dysregulation and brain dysfunction in PTSD","volume":"1","author":"Lanius","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Psychotraumatol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-843X.108.1.134","article-title":"Fear-Potentiated Startle Conditioning to Explicit and Contextual Cues in Gulf War Veterans With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder","volume":"108","author":"Grillon","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1025758411370","article-title":"Fear-potentiated startle and posttraumatic stress symptoms in urban police officers","volume":"16","author":"Pole","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Traum. Stress"}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/7\/2\/16\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:27:23Z","timestamp":1760207243000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/7\/2\/16"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,4]]},"references-count":59,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,2]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci7020016"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci7020016","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-3425","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,2,4]]}}}