{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,25]],"date-time":"2025-10-25T13:58:06Z","timestamp":1761400686373,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":114,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,1]],"date-time":"2017-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1498867200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Tic disorders (TD) and body-focused repetitive behaviors (BFRB) have similar phenotypes that can be challenging to distinguish in clinical settings. Both disorders show high rates of comorbid psychiatric conditions, dysfunctional basal ganglia activity, atypical cortical functioning in the prefrontal and motor cortical regions, and cognitive deficits. Clinicians frequently confound the two disorders and it is important to find reliable objective methods to discriminate TD and BFRB. Neuropsychological tests and event-related potential (ERP) studies have yielded inconsistent results regarding a possible context updating deficit in TD and BFRB patients. However, most previous studies did not control for the presence of comorbid psychiatric condition and medication status, which might have confounded the findings reported to date. Hence, we aimed to investigate the psychophysiology of working memory using ERP in carefully screened TD and BFRB patients excluding those with psychiatric comorbidity and those taking psychoactive medication. The current study compared 12 TD patients, 12 BRFB patients, and 15 healthy control participants using a motor oddball task (button press). The P300 component was analyzed as an index of working memory functioning. Results showed that BFRB patients had decreased P300 oddball effect amplitudes over the right hemisphere compared to the TD and control groups. Clinical groups presented different scalp distributions compared to controls, which could represent a potential endophenotype candidate of BFRB and TD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci7070076","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,3]],"date-time":"2017-07-03T10:27:31Z","timestamp":1499077651000},"page":"76","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["P300 Source Localization Contrasts in Body-Focused Repetitive Behaviors and Tic Disorders"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Genevi\u00e8ve","family":"Sauv\u00e9","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montr\u00e9al, QC H3A 1A1, Canada"},{"name":"Cognitive and Social Psychophysiology Lab, Centre de Recherche de L\u2019Institut Universitaire en Sant\u00e9 Mentale de Montr\u00e9al, 7331 Hochelaga Street, Montr\u00e9al, QC H1N 3V2, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5880-3688","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simon","family":"Morand-Beaulieu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cognitive and Social Psychophysiology Lab, Centre de Recherche de L\u2019Institut Universitaire en Sant\u00e9 Mentale de Montr\u00e9al, 7331 Hochelaga Street, Montr\u00e9al, QC H1N 3V2, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Neurosciences, Universit\u00e9 de Montr\u00e9al, Montr\u00e9al, QC H3T 1J4, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kieron","family":"O\u2019Connor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Universit\u00e9 de Montr\u00e9al, Montr\u00e9al, QC H3T 1J4, Canada"},{"name":"Centre D\u2019\u00e9tudes sur les Troubles Obsessionnels-Compulsifs et les Tics, Centre de Recherche de L\u2019Institut Universitaire en Sant\u00e9 Mentale de Montr\u00e9al, 7331 Hochelaga Street, Montr\u00e9al, QC H1N 3V2, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pierre","family":"Blanchet","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosciences, Universit\u00e9 de Montr\u00e9al, Montr\u00e9al, QC H3T 1J4, Canada"},{"name":"Centre D\u2019\u00e9tudes sur les Troubles Obsessionnels-Compulsifs et les Tics, Centre de Recherche de L\u2019Institut Universitaire en Sant\u00e9 Mentale de Montr\u00e9al, 7331 Hochelaga Street, Montr\u00e9al, QC H1N 3V2, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Stomatology, Faculty of Dental Medicine, Universit\u00e9 de Montr\u00e9al, Montr\u00e9al, QC H3T 1J4, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3037-3890","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marc","family":"Lavoie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cognitive and Social Psychophysiology Lab, Centre de Recherche de L\u2019Institut Universitaire en Sant\u00e9 Mentale de Montr\u00e9al, 7331 Hochelaga Street, Montr\u00e9al, QC H1N 3V2, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Neurosciences, Universit\u00e9 de Montr\u00e9al, Montr\u00e9al, QC H3T 1J4, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry, Universit\u00e9 de Montr\u00e9al, Montr\u00e9al, QC H3T 1J4, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1177\/070674371405900804","article-title":"Meta-cognitions in tourette syndrome, tic disorders, and body-focused repetitive disorder","volume":"59","author":"Leclerc","year":"2014","journal-title":"Can. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"81","article-title":"The Impact of a Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy on Event-Related Potentials in Patients with Tic Disorders or Body-Focused Repetitive Behaviors","volume":"7","author":"Richard","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.148.3.365","article-title":"Characteristics of 60 adult chronic hair pullers","volume":"148","author":"Christenson","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-007-1003-7","article-title":"Tic disorders and ADHD: Answers from a world-wide clinical dataset on Tourette syndrome","volume":"16","author":"Freeman","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1877","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.v67n1207","article-title":"Trichotillomania Learning Center-Scientific Advisory, B. The Trichotillomania Impact Project (TIP): Exploring phenomenology, functional impairment, and treatment utilization","volume":"67","author":"Woods","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"292","article-title":"Skin picking disorder is associated with other body-focused repetitive behaviors: Findings from an internet study","volume":"24","author":"Snorrason","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Psychiatry Off. J. Am. Acad. Clin. Psychiatr."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1007\/s10882-010-9213-1","article-title":"Behavioural program for managing explosive outbursts in children with Tourette syndrome","volume":"23","author":"Leclerc","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Dev. Phys. Disabil."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2013.05.004","article-title":"Emotion regulation and other psychological models for body-focused repetitive behaviors","volume":"33","author":"Roberts","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beth.2013.09.002","article-title":"The premonitory urge to tic: Measurement, characteristics, and correlates in older adolescents and adults","volume":"45","author":"Reese","year":"2014","journal-title":"Behav. Ther."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbtep.2014.10.007","article-title":"The impact of emotions on body-Focused repetitive behaviors: Evidence from a non-treatment-seeking sample","volume":"46","author":"Roberts","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbtep.2010.01.009","article-title":"Emotion regulation in pathological skin picking: Findings from a non-treatment seeking sample","volume":"41","author":"Snorrason","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.janxdis.2010.08.007","article-title":"The Skin Picking Impact Project: Phenomenology, interference, and treatment utilization of pathological skin picking in a population-based sample","volume":"25","author":"Tucker","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Anxiety Disord."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/984836","article-title":"Premonitory urges and sensorimotor processing in Tourette syndrome","volume":"27","author":"Rajagopal","year":"2013","journal-title":"Behav. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beth.2010.12.002","article-title":"Motor inhibition, reflection impulsivity, and trait impulsivity in pathological skin picking","volume":"42","author":"Snorrason","year":"2011","journal-title":"Behav. Ther."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.2466\/pms.1993.77.3.776","article-title":"Changes in construals of tic-producing situations following cognitive and behavioral therapy","volume":"77","author":"Gareau","year":"1993","journal-title":"Percept. Mot. Sk."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.2000.tb00346.x","article-title":"An international perspective on Tourette syndrome: Selected findings from 3500 individuals in 22 countries","volume":"42","author":"Freeman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Dev. Med. Child Neurol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2008.06.008","article-title":"Tourette\u2019s syndrome, trichotillomania, and obsessive\u2014Compulsive disorder: How closely are they related?","volume":"170","author":"Miguel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.braindev.2008.03.010","article-title":"Psychiatric disorders and behavioral problems in children and adolescents with Tourette syndrome","volume":"31","author":"Ghanizadeh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain Dev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1212\/01.WNL.0000076181.39162.FC","article-title":"Increased ventral striatal monoaminergic innervation in Tourette syndrome","volume":"61","author":"Albin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1212\/01.wnl.0000180957.98702.69","article-title":"Caudate volumes in childhood predict symptom severity in adults with Tourette syndrome","volume":"65","author":"Bloch","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.bp.107.048314","article-title":"Grey matter abnormalities in trichotillomania: Morphometric magnetic resonance imaging study","volume":"193","author":"Chamberlain","year":"2008","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry J. Ment. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.22206","article-title":"Decreased number of parvalbumin and cholinergic interneurons in the striatum of individuals with Tourette syndrome","volume":"518","author":"Kataoka","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Comp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3223(96)00297-1","article-title":"Reduced basal ganglia volumes in trichotillomania measured via morphometric magnetic resonance imaging","volume":"42","author":"Rauch","year":"1997","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1326","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.ajp.2011.09111692","article-title":"The neural circuits that generate tics in Tourette\u2019s syndrome","volume":"168","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shepherd, G.M. (2004). Basal Ganglia. The Synaptic Organization of the Brain, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780195159561.001.1"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1819.1997.tb03205.x","article-title":"MRI-based morphometric topographic parcellation of human neocortex in trichotillomania","volume":"51","author":"Grachev","year":"1997","journal-title":"Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/S0893-133X(01)00428-6","article-title":"The functional neuroanatomy of Tourette\u2019s syndrome: An FDG PET study III: Functional coupling of regional cerebral metabolic rates","volume":"27","author":"Jeffries","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacol. Off. Publ. Am. Coll. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2010.02324.x","article-title":"Increased putamen and callosal motor subregion in treatment-naive boys with Tourette syndrome indicates changes in the bihemispheric motor network","volume":"52","author":"Roessner","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry Allied Discip."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1277","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.154.9.1277","article-title":"Decreased motor inhibition in Tourette\u2019s disorder: Evidence from transcranial magnetic stimulation","volume":"154","author":"Ziemann","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1080\/13825580600966383","article-title":"Neurocognitive correlates of child obsessive compulsive disorder and Tourette syndrome","volume":"29","author":"Chang","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"958","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.46.4.958","article-title":"Neuropsychological status of children with Tourette\u2019s syndrome with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"46","author":"Schuerholz","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-440X(97)90047-X","article-title":"Tourette disorder: A cross-cultural review","volume":"38","author":"Staley","year":"1997","journal-title":"Compr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2006.11.008","article-title":"Motor inhibition in trichotillomania and obsessive-compulsive disorder","volume":"42","author":"Bohne","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1282","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.2006.163.7.1282","article-title":"Motor inhibition and cognitive flexibility in obsessive-compulsive disorder and trichotillomania","volume":"163","author":"Chamberlain","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2011.07.012","article-title":"A cognitive comparison of pathological skin picking and trichotillomania","volume":"45","author":"Grant","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pnpbp.2009.11.008","article-title":"Motor inhibition and cognitive flexibility in pathologic skin picking","volume":"34","author":"Odlaug","year":"2010","journal-title":"Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2017.05.006","article-title":"The puzzling question of inhibitory control in Tourette syndrome: A meta-analysis","volume":"80","author":"Grot","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2006.07.016","article-title":"A neuropsychological comparison of obsessive-compulsive disorder and trichotillomania","volume":"45","author":"Chamberlain","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"170","article-title":"Attention deficits in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome","volume":"5","author":"Channon","year":"1992","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol. Behav. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1037\/0894-4105.9.3.329","article-title":"Selective impairments of memory functioning in unmedicated adults with Gilles de la Tourette\u2019s syndrome","volume":"9","author":"Stebbins","year":"1995","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579405050200","article-title":"Executive functioning in children with autism and Tourette syndrome","volume":"17","author":"Verte","year":"2005","journal-title":"Dev. Psychopathol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1037\/0894-4105.20.1.58","article-title":"Tourette\u2019s syndrome (TS): Cognitive performance in adults with uncomplicated TS","volume":"20","author":"Channon","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2005.01419.x","article-title":"Tourette\u2019s syndrome: Performance on tests of behavioural inhibition, working memory and gambling","volume":"46","author":"Crawford","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry Allied Discip."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychres.2012.05.023","article-title":"Executive functions in uncomplicated Tourette syndrome","volume":"200","author":"Eddy","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1360-0443.2006.01380.x","article-title":"Neurocognitive functions in pathological gambling: A comparison with alcohol dependence, Tourette syndrome and normal controls","volume":"101","author":"Goudriaan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Addiction"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"916","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2004.01.003","article-title":"Cognitive-pharmacologic functional magnetic resonance imaging in tourette syndrome: A pilot study","volume":"55","author":"Hershey","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awh318","article-title":"Motor inhibition in patients with Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: Functional activation patterns as revealed by EEG coherence","volume":"128","author":"Serrien","year":"2005","journal-title":"Brain J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1097\/01.wnq.0000151131.06699.af","article-title":"Brain-behavior relations during motor processing in chronic tic and habit disorder","volume":"18","author":"Lavoie","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cognit. Behav. Neurol. Off. J. Soc. Behav. Cognit. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.12205","article-title":"Decreased response monitoring in individuals with symptoms of trichotillomania","volume":"51","author":"Roberts","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-002-0657-9","article-title":"Excessive action monitoring in Tourette syndrome","volume":"249","author":"Johannes","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"152","article-title":"Event-related brain potentials show changed attentional mechanisms in Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome","volume":"4","author":"Johannes","year":"1997","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol. Off. J. Eur. Fed. Neurol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0404.2001.00308.x","article-title":"Altered inhibition of motor responses in Tourette Syndrome and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder","volume":"104","author":"Johannes","year":"2001","journal-title":"Acta Neurol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"253","article-title":"Electrophysiological measures and dual-task performance in Tourette syndrome indicate deficient divided attention mechanisms","volume":"8","author":"Johannes","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol. Off. J. Eur. Fed. Neurol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1155\/2003\/326468","article-title":"Tourette syndrome and obsessive-compulsive disorder: Event-related brain potentials show similar mechanisms (correction of mechansims) of frontal inhibition but dissimilar target evaluation processes","volume":"14","author":"Johannes","year":"2003","journal-title":"Behav. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2016.00050","article-title":"Performance Monitoring in Medication-Naive Children with Tourette Syndrome","volume":"10","author":"Eichele","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijdevneu.2016.04.005","article-title":"Electrophysiological correlates of reinforcement learning in young people with Tourette syndrome with and without co-occurring ADHD symptoms","volume":"51","author":"Shephard","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Dev. Neurosci. Off. J. Int. Soc. Dev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1111\/jnp.12071","article-title":"The effects of co-occurring ADHD symptoms on electrophysiological correlates of cognitive control in young people with Tourette syndrome","volume":"10","author":"Shephard","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-4694(78)90027-5","article-title":"On how P300 amplitude varies with the utility of the eliciting stimuli","volume":"44","author":"Johnson","year":"1978","journal-title":"Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2003.07.009","article-title":"What is odd in the oddball task? Prefrontal cortex is activated by dynamic changes in response strategy","volume":"42","author":"Huettel","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychores.2009.08.001","article-title":"Neuropsychological aspects of Tourette syndrome: A review","volume":"67","author":"Eddy","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Psychosom. Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Connor, K.P., Lavoie, M.E., Desaulniers, B., and Audet, J.-S. ( 2017). Cognitive Psychophysiological Treatment of Bodily-Focused Repetitive Behaviours in Adults: An Open Trial. J. Clin. Psychol., in press.","DOI":"10.1002\/jclp.22501"},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"76","article-title":"Evaluation of a cognitive psychophysiological model for management of tic disorders: An open trial","volume":"209","author":"Lavoie","year":"2015","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Connor, K.P. (2005). Cognitive Behavioral Management of Tic Disorders, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470713518"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7967(00)00048-6","article-title":"Evaluation of a cognitive-behavioural program for the management of chronic tic and habit disorders","volume":"39","author":"Brault","year":"2001","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hyler, S.E. (1994). The Personality Diagnostic Questionnaire 4+, New York State Psychiatric Institute.","DOI":"10.1037\/t07759-000"},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Raven, J.C. (1938). Progressive Matrices: A Perceptual Test of Intelligence, H.K. Lewis & Co."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-198403000-00006","article-title":"A new instrument for clinical studies of Tourette\u2019s syndrome","volume":"23","author":"Harcherik","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"566","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-198907000-00015","article-title":"The Yale Global Tic Severity Scale: Initial testing of a clinician-rated scale of tic severity","volume":"28","author":"Leckman","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adoles. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1037\/1040-3590.17.4.486","article-title":"Reliability and validity of the Yale Global Tic Severity Scale","volume":"17","author":"Storch","year":"2005","journal-title":"Psychol. Assess."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-199205000-00013","article-title":"The validity of instruments measuring tic severity in Tourette\u2019s syndrome","volume":"31","author":"Walkup","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1159\/000289003","article-title":"The Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) Hairpulling Scale: 1. development and factor analyses","volume":"64","author":"Keuthen","year":"1995","journal-title":"Psychother. Psychosom."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"First, M.B., Spitzer, R.L., Gibbon, M., and Williams, J.B.W. (2002). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR Axis I Disorders, Biometrics Research. Research Version, Patient Edition."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.56.6.893","article-title":"An inventory for measuring clinical anxiety: Psychometric properties","volume":"56","author":"Beck","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Consult. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1961.01710120031004","article-title":"An inventory for measuring depression","volume":"4","author":"Beck","year":"1961","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brat.2003.08.007","article-title":"The Vancouver Obsessional Compulsive Inventory (VOCI)","volume":"42","author":"Thordarson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3932(71)90067-4","article-title":"The assessment and analysis of handedness: The Edinburgh inventory","volume":"9","author":"Oldfield","year":"1971","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Electroencephalography Society (1994). Guideline thirteen: Guidelines for standard electrode position nomenclature. J. Clin. Neurophysiol. Off. Publ. Am. Electroencephalogr. Soc., 11, 111\u2013113.","DOI":"10.1097\/00004691-199401000-00014"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1016\/0013-4694(83)90135-9","article-title":"A new method for off-line removal of ocular artifact","volume":"55","author":"Gratton","year":"1983","journal-title":"Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_79","first-page":"5","article-title":"Standardized low-resolution brain electromagnetic tomography (sLORETA): Technical details","volume":"24","year":"2002","journal-title":"Methods Find. Exp. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4927(99)00013-X","article-title":"Low resolution brain electromagnetic tomography (LORETA) functional imaging in acute, neuroleptic-naive, first-episode, productive schizophrenia","volume":"90","author":"Lehmann","year":"1999","journal-title":"Psychiatry Res."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1293","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2001.0915","article-title":"A probabilistic atlas and reference system for the human brain: International Consortium for Brain Mapping (ICBM)","volume":"356","author":"Mazziotta","year":"2001","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. Lond. Ser. B"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-0193(200007)10:3<120::AID-HBM30>3.0.CO;2-8","article-title":"Automated Talairach atlas labels for functional brain mapping","volume":"10","author":"Lancaster","year":"2000","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_83","unstructured":"Talairach, J., and Tournoux, P. (1988). Co-planar Stereotaxic Atlas of the Human Brain, Thieme."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.1058","article-title":"Nonparametric permutation tests for functional neuroimaging: A primer with examples","volume":"15","author":"Nichols","year":"2002","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1824881","article-title":"Intrinsic oscillations of neocortex generated by layer 5 pyramidal neurons","volume":"251","author":"Silva","year":"1991","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0193(1997)5:4<249::AID-HBM8>3.0.CO;2-3","article-title":"Dynamics of neuronal interactions: Relation to behavior, firing rates, and distance between neurons","volume":"5","author":"Haalman","year":"1997","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_87","unstructured":"Toga, A.W., and Mazziotta, J.C. (2002). Statistical parametric mapping and other analysis of functional imaging data. Brain Mapping, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Brodmann, K., and Gary, L.J. (2006). Brodmann\u2019s Localisation in the Cerebral Cortex: The Principles of Comparative Localisation in the Cerebral Cortex Based on Cytoarchitectonics, Springer."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1097\/00004728-199803000-00032","article-title":"Enhancement of MR images using registration for signal averaging","volume":"22","author":"Holmes","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Comput. Assist. Tomogr."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X00058027","article-title":"Is the P300 component a manifestation of context updating?","volume":"11","author":"Donchin","year":"1988","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1126\/science.887923","article-title":"Augmenting mental chronometry: The P300 as a measure of stimulus evaluation time","volume":"197","author":"Kutas","year":"1977","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.1997.tb02125.x","article-title":"On the utility of P3 latency as an index of mental chronometry","volume":"34","author":"Verleger","year":"1997","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"597","DOI":"10.1177\/001872088302500601","article-title":"An analysis of the processing requirements of a complex perceptual-motor task","volume":"25","author":"Kramer","year":"1983","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2007.04.019","article-title":"Updating P300: An integrative theory of P3a and P3b","volume":"118","author":"Polich","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luck, S.J., and Kappenman, E.S. (2012). Neuropsychology of P300. Handbook of Event-Related Potential Components, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oxfordhb\/9780195374148.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_96","first-page":"MT47","article-title":"Localizing P300 generators in high-density event- related potential with fMRI","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Monit. Int. Med. J. Exp. Clin. Res."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2013.03.026","article-title":"Do EEG paradigms work in fMRI? Varying task demands in the visual oddball paradigm: Implications for task design and results interpretation","volume":"77","author":"Warbrick","year":"2013","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"89","article-title":"Neurobiology of basal ganglia and Tourette syndrome: Basal ganglia circuits and thalamocortical outputs","volume":"99","author":"Mink","year":"2006","journal-title":"Adv. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7967(02)00048-7","article-title":"A cognitive-behavioral\/psychophysiological model of tic disorders","volume":"40","year":"2002","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1037\/cep0000078","article-title":"Adapting to change: The role of the right hemisphere in mental model building and updating","volume":"70","author":"Filipowicz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Can. J. Exp. Psychol. Rev. Can. Psychol. Exp."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1975","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpsychires.2013.09.003","article-title":"P300 in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Source localization and the effects of treatment","volume":"47","author":"Andreou","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_102","first-page":"420","article-title":"An attentional inhibitory deficit for irrelevant information in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Evidence from ERPs","volume":"94","author":"Fan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychophysiol. Off. J. Int. Organ. Psychophysiol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"915","DOI":"10.1002\/da.20886","article-title":"Auditory novelty processing is enhanced in obsessive-compulsive disorder","volume":"28","author":"Ischebeck","year":"2011","journal-title":"Depression Anxiety"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1016\/S0278-5846(03)00047-2","article-title":"Event-related potentials and neuropsychological tests in obsessive-compulsive disorder","volume":"27","author":"Kivircik","year":"2003","journal-title":"Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3956(02)00055-9","article-title":"P300 subcomponents in obsessive-compulsive disorder","volume":"36","author":"Mavrogiorgou","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1440-1819.1998.00427.x","article-title":"Event-related potentials in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder","volume":"52","author":"Miyata","year":"1998","journal-title":"Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(90)90626-D","article-title":"Endogenous event-related potentials in obsessive-compulsive disorder","volume":"28","author":"Towey","year":"1990","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_108","first-page":"116","article-title":"Altered attentional processing of background stimuli in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: A study in auditory event-related potentials evoked in an oddball paradigm","volume":"90","author":"Roos","year":"1994","journal-title":"Acta Neurol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2001.tb05773.x","article-title":"Clinical and molecular genetics of ADHD and Tourette syndrome. Two related polygenic disorders","volume":"931","author":"Comings","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1177\/070674371205700302","article-title":"Canadian guidelines for the evidence-based treatment of tic disorders: Pharmacotherapy","volume":"57","author":"Pringsheim","year":"2012","journal-title":"Can. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1097\/WNR.0b013e32834bbe1f","article-title":"What can topology changes in the oddball N2 reveal about underlying processes?","volume":"22","author":"Warren","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroreport"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/0301-0511(88)90005-1","article-title":"Overlap between P300 and movement-related-potentials: A response to Verleger","volume":"27","author":"Kok","year":"1988","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2015.05.024","article-title":"Cognitive-behavioral therapy induces sensorimotor and specific electrocortical changes in chronic tic and Tourette\u2019s disorder","volume":"79","author":"Blanchet","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistic Manual of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Publishing. [5th ed.].","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425596"}],"container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/7\/7\/76\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:41:05Z","timestamp":1760208065000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-3425\/7\/7\/76"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,1]]},"references-count":114,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,7]]}},"alternative-id":["brainsci7070076"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/brainsci7070076","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-3425"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2076-3425"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,7,1]]}}}