{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,15]],"date-time":"2026-08-15T09:39:55Z","timestamp":1786786795861,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":110,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,24]],"date-time":"2019-01-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1548288000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Brain Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The field of neuromodulation has seen unprecedented growth over the course of the last decade with novel waveforms, hardware advancements, and novel chronic pain indications. We present here an updated review on spinal cord stimulation, dorsal root ganglion stimulation, and peripheral nerve stimulation. We focus on mechanisms of action, clinical indications, and future areas of research. We also present current drawbacks with current stimulation technology and suggest areas of future advancements. Given the current shortage of viable treatment options using a pharmacological based approach and conservative interventional therapies, neuromodulation presents an interesting area of growth and development for the interventional pain field and provides current and future practitioners a fresh outlook with regards to its place in the chronic pain treatment paradigm.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci9020023","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,24]],"date-time":"2019-01-24T11:12:48Z","timestamp":1548328368000},"page":"23","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":81,"title":["Neurostimulation for Intractable Chronic Pain"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"9","author":[{"given":"Timothy","family":"Deer","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Spine and Nerve Center of the Virginias, Charleston, VA 25301, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0225-2514","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sameer","family":"Jain","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pain Treatment Centers of America, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Corey","family":"Hunter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ainsworth Institute of Pain Management, New York, NY 10022, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7994-3786","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Krishnan","family":"Chakravarthy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of California San Diego Health Sciences, San Diego, CA 92037, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1003","DOI":"10.1097\/j.pain.0000000000000160","article-title":"A classification of chronic pain for ICD-11","volume":"156","author":"Treede","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pain"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(17)32154-2","article-title":"Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 328 diseases and injuries for 195 countries, 1990\u20132016: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016","volume":"390","author":"Disease","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpain.2012.03.009","article-title":"The economic costs of pain in the United States","volume":"13","author":"Gaskin","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. 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