{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,17]],"date-time":"2026-07-17T22:30:37Z","timestamp":1784327437244,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,15]],"date-time":"2023-02-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1676419200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Chinese State Office for Education Sciences Project","award":["CEA190263"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CEA190263"]}]},{"name":"Chinese State Office for Education Sciences Project","award":["2022-04-012-BZPK01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022-04-012-BZPK01"]}]},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment toward Basic Education Quality at Beijing Normal University","award":["CEA190263"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CEA190263"]}]},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Center of Assessment toward Basic Education Quality at Beijing Normal University","award":["2022-04-012-BZPK01"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022-04-012-BZPK01"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Procrastination (the intentional delay of action despite knowing that one will be worse off due to the delay) is a widespread phenomenon with various negative consequences, especially among adolescents. Based on relevant evidence, this study examined the relation between negative life events and adolescents\u2019 procrastination, as well as the underlying mechanisms\u2014specifically, the effects of negative emotions and rumination, as well as the potential gender differences. A total of 780 adolescents (Mage = 12.92 years old; 52.2% females) were recruited to complete a set of questionnaires assessing negative life events, procrastination, depression-anxiety-stress symptoms and rumination. Results showed that negative life events were positively associated with procrastination, and negative emotions significantly mediated the relation; rumination played a moderating role in this mediation model, specifically, both the direct and indirect effects in this mediation model were stronger for adolescents with higher rumination. Besides this, gender differences in this moderated mediation model were also found\u2014the indirect effect of negative emotions was stronger for girls, and this mediating effect could be moderated by rumination only for boys. These results expanded our understanding of how negative life events influence procrastination and when (or for whom) negative life events influence procrastination the most. The findings also have significant implications for the prevention and intervention of adolescents\u2019 procrastination.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs13020176","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,15]],"date-time":"2023-02-15T04:47:24Z","timestamp":1676436444000},"page":"176","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Negative Life Events and Procrastination among Adolescents: The Roles of Negative Emotions and Rumination, as Well as the Potential Gender Differences"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Lizhong","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Education, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tianyi","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Education, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaochun","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, Northeast Normal University, Changchun 130024, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lian, S., Sun, X., Zhou, Z., Fan, C., Niu, G., and Liu, Q. (2018). Social networking site addiction and undergraduate students\u2019 irrational procrastination: The mediating role of social networking site fatigue and the moderating role of effortful control. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0208162"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2016.06.049","article-title":"Procrastination as a self-regulation failure: The role of inhibition, negative affect, and gender","volume":"101","author":"Rebetez","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pers. Indiv. Differ."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1007\/s10942-017-0263-5","article-title":"Schemas Mediate the Link Between Procrastination and Depression: Results from the United States and Pakistan","volume":"35","author":"Aftab","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Ration.-Emot. Cogn.-Behav. Ther."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.133.1.65","article-title":"The Nature of Procrastination: A Meta-Analytic and Theoretical Review of Quintessential Self-Regulatory Failure","volume":"133","author":"Steel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1007\/s10212-015-0266-5","article-title":"Procrastination, self-regulation failure, academic life satisfaction, and affective well-being: Underregulation or misregulation form","volume":"31","author":"Balkis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. J. Psychol. Educ."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1080\/15298868.2013.763404","article-title":"Procrastination and Stress: Exploring the Role of Self-compassion","volume":"13","author":"Sirois","year":"2014","journal-title":"Self Identity"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2014.11.044","article-title":"Cognitive, emotional, and motivational factors related to procrastination: A cluster analytic approach","volume":"76","author":"Rebetez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Pers. Indiv. Differ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/S0191-8869(01)00151-9","article-title":"Parenting and procrastination: Gender differences in the relations between procrastination, parenting style and self-worth in early adolescence","volume":"33","author":"Pychyl","year":"2002","journal-title":"Pers. Indiv. Differ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.80.1.53","article-title":"Emotional distress regulation takes precedence over impulse control: If you feel bad, do it!","volume":"80","author":"Tice","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10942-015-0222-y","article-title":"The Contribution of Metacognitions and Attentional Control to Decisional Procrastination","volume":"34","author":"Fernie","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Ration.-Emot. Cogn. B"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.2224\/sbp.1992.20.2.85","article-title":"Components of perfectionism and procrastination in college students","volume":"20","author":"Flett","year":"1992","journal-title":"Soc. Behav. Pers. Int. J."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"863","article-title":"Multidimensional perfectionism and academic procrastination: Relationships with depression in university students","volume":"73","author":"Saddler","year":"1993","journal-title":"Psychol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022543419747","article-title":"Negative Life Events and Depressive Symptoms in Late Adolescence: Bonding and Cognitive Coping as Vulnerability Factors","volume":"32","author":"Kraaij","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Youth Adolesc."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2016.12.057","article-title":"The association between life events and internet addiction among Chinese vocational school students: The mediating role of depression","volume":"70","author":"Zhao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8624.00525","article-title":"Reciprocal Influences Between Stressful Life Events and Adolescent Internalizing and Externalizing Problems","volume":"74","author":"Kim","year":"2003","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1080\/13811118.2013.824835","article-title":"Negative Life Events and Non-Suicidal Self-Injury in an Adolescent Inpatient Sample","volume":"18","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch. Suicide Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1002\/jclp.22140","article-title":"Coping skill as a moderator between negative life events and suicide among young people in rural China","volume":"71","author":"Sun","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, F., Yao, Y., Yao, C., Xiong, Y., Ma, H., and Liu, H. (2019). The mediating role of resilience and self-esteem between negative life events and positive social adjustment among left-behind adolescents in China: A cross-sectional study. BMC Psychiatry, 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-019-2219-z"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1529","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2016.01529","article-title":"Do Peers Matter? Resistance to Peer Influence as a Mediator between Self-Esteem and Procrastination among Undergraduates","volume":"7","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2011.05.008","article-title":"Self-esteem, self-confidence, anxiety and claimed self-handicapping: A mediational analysis","volume":"12","author":"Coudevylle","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychol. Sport Exerc."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.2466\/07.09.20.PR0.109.6.983-989","article-title":"Relative Contributions of Self-Efficacy, Self-Regulation, and Self-Handicapping in Predicting Student Procrastination","volume":"109","author":"Strunk","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2010.03.031","article-title":"Stressful life events and problematic Internet use by adolescent females and males: A mediated moderation model","volume":"26","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Lerner, R.M., Lerner, J.V., Almerigi, J., and Theokas, C. (2006). Comprehensive Handbook of Personality and Psychopathology, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1007\/s10964-006-9166-y","article-title":"When does the Gender Difference in Rumination Begin? Gender and Age Differences in the Use of Rumination by Adolescents","volume":"37","author":"Jose","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Youth Adolesc."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1445","DOI":"10.1007\/s12144-018-9851-5","article-title":"Gender differences in procrastination: The role of personality traits","volume":"39","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"115","article-title":"Procrastination and the Priority of Short-Term Mood Regulation: Consequences for Future Self","volume":"7","author":"Sirois","year":"2013","journal-title":"Soc. Pers. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1080\/02699931.2016.1145106","article-title":"The evolutionary emergence of what we call \u201cemotions\u201d","volume":"30","author":"Frijda","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cogn. Emot."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1249","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2005.06.004","article-title":"Cognitive emotion regulation in the prediction of depression, anxiety, stress, and anger","volume":"39","author":"Martin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pers. Indiv. Differ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1016\/S1836-9553(10)70030-8","article-title":"The Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS)","volume":"56","author":"Parkitny","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Physiother."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1319","DOI":"10.1017\/S0033291704003186","article-title":"Expanding our understanding of the relationship between negative life events and depressive symptoms in black and white adolescent girls","volume":"34","author":"Franko","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychol. Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2008.12.013","article-title":"Life events, coping and depressive symptoms among young adolescents: A one-year prospective study","volume":"117","author":"Sawyer","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0447.2011.01753.x","article-title":"Positive and negative life events and personality traits in predicting course of depression and anxiety","volume":"124","author":"Spinhoven","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr. Scand."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"292","article-title":"The perception of life events and daily stress in nonulcer dyspepsia","volume":"86","author":"Hui","year":"1991","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.29.1.130","article-title":"Stress and \u201cStorm and Stress\u201d in Early Adolescence: The Relationship of Negative Events with Dysphoric Affect","volume":"29","author":"Larson","year":"1993","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"293","article-title":"On the nature and function of emotion: A component process approach","volume":"31","author":"Scherer","year":"1984","journal-title":"Approaches Emot."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1177\/1548051809333338","article-title":"Pride and Gratitude: How Positive Emotions Influence the Prosocial Behaviors of Organizational Leaders","volume":"15","author":"Michie","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Leadersh. Organ. Stud."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"117","article-title":"The Influence of Moral Disengagement and Negative Emotion on Antisocial Sport Behavior","volume":"2","author":"Stanger","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sport Exerc. Perform. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"800","DOI":"10.1086\/593683","article-title":"Psychological Distancing: Why Happiness Helps You See the Big Picture","volume":"35","author":"Labroo","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Consum. Res."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.56.3.218","article-title":"The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions","volume":"56","author":"Fredrickson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1556-6676.1998.tb02548.x","article-title":"Procrastination in College Students: The Role of Self-Efficacy and Anxiety","volume":"76","author":"Haycock","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Couns. Dev."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1891\/jcop.20.3.319","article-title":"Metacognitions, Emotions, and Procrastination","volume":"20","author":"Spada","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Psychother."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1023910315561","article-title":"Rumination Reconsidered: A Psychometric Analysis","volume":"27","author":"Treynor","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cogn. Ther. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1329","DOI":"10.1037\/a0028070","article-title":"Rumination Moderates the Effects of Daily Events on Negative Mood: Results from a Diary Study","volume":"12","author":"Genet","year":"2012","journal-title":"Emotion"},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"15","article-title":"Anxiety, Depression, and Procrastination Among Students: Rumination Plays a Larger Mediating Role than Worry","volume":"36","author":"Constantin","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Ration.-Emot. Cogn. B"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"850","DOI":"10.1177\/0146167211401420","article-title":"Understanding Impulsive Aggression: Angry Rumination and Reduced Self-Control Capacity Are Mechanisms Underlying the Provocation-Aggression Relationship","volume":"37","author":"Denson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1532-7795.2010.00715.x","article-title":"Gender and Adolescent Development","volume":"21","author":"Perry","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Res. Adolesc."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2013.03.019","article-title":"Gender differences in rumination: A meta-analysis","volume":"55","author":"Johnson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pers. Indiv. Differ."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-843X.107.1.109","article-title":"Gender differences in anxiety disorders and anxiety symptoms in adolescents","volume":"107","author":"Lewinsohn","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Abnorm. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.77.5.1061","article-title":"Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms","volume":"77","author":"Larson","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.3200\/SOCP.149.2.241-257","article-title":"Exploring Academic Procrastination Among Turkish Students: Possible Gender Differences in Prevalence and Reasons","volume":"149","author":"Demir","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106993","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2021.106993","article-title":"Academic procrastination precedes problematic mobile phone use in Chinese adolescents: A longitudinal mediation model of distraction cognitions","volume":"121","author":"Hong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Addict. Behav."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1007\/s11121-008-0109-6","article-title":"A General Model for Testing Mediation and Moderation Effects","volume":"10","author":"Fairchild","year":"2009","journal-title":"Prev. Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2018.12.103","article-title":"Does bullying victimization really influence adolescents\u2019 psychosocial problems? A three-wave longitudinal study in China","volume":"246","author":"Chu","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.3724\/SP.J.1041.2017.00941","article-title":"Upward social comparison on SNS and depression: A moderated mediation model and gender difference","volume":"49","author":"Lian","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Psychol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Hayes, A.F. (2018). Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach, Guilford Publications."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Niu, G., Shi, X., Jin, S., Yang, W., Wu, Y., and Sun, X. (2022). Machiavellianism and Gift-Giving in Live Video Streaming: The Mediating Role of Desire for Control and the Moderating Role of Materialism. Behav. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/bs12050157"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1037\/a0034893","article-title":"Workload and Procrastination: The Roles of Psychological Detachment and Fatigue","volume":"21","author":"DeArmond","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Stress Manag."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.176.4.373","article-title":"Self-efficacy as a mediator between stressful life events and depressive symptoms","volume":"176","author":"Maciejewski","year":"2000","journal-title":"Brit. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1093\/occmed\/kql037","article-title":"Work-related life events, psychological well-being and cardiovascular risk factors in male Swedish automotive workers","volume":"56","author":"Rose","year":"2006","journal-title":"Occup. Med."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.64.1.131","article-title":"Negative Life Events, Perceived Stress, Negative Affect, and Susceptibility to the Common Cold","volume":"64","author":"Cohen","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1380","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.52.12.1380.b","article-title":"Sex Differences in Social Behavior: Comparing Social Role Theory and Evolutionary Psychology","volume":"52","author":"Eagly","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2012.06.009","article-title":"Induced rumination in everyday life: Advancing research approaches to study rumination","volume":"53","author":"Huffziger","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pers. Indiv. Differ."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2005.01.016","article-title":"Life events, psychopathology, and suicidal behavior in Chinese adolescents","volume":"86","author":"Liu","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2016.05.070","article-title":"Stressful life events and adolescent Internet addiction: The mediating role of psychological needs satisfaction and the moderating role of coping style","volume":"63","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"265","article-title":"Mindfulness and Rumination: Does Mindfulness Training Lead to Reductions in the Ruminative Thinking Associated with Depression?","volume":"5","author":"Deyo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Explose"}],"container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/13\/2\/176\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T18:36:16Z","timestamp":1760121376000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/13\/2\/176"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,15]]},"references-count":65,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,2]]}},"alternative-id":["bs13020176"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bs13020176","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-328X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-328X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,2,15]]}}}