{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T22:58:31Z","timestamp":1791327511827,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,8]],"date-time":"2024-06-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1717804800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Aims: This study aimed at examining coach-athlete violence based on the retrospective reports of adults who had been athletes as children and adolescents; predict variables that contribute to the existence of such violence; describe difficulties that the participants encountered as young athletes following such violence; and reveal the outcomes of such violence on their emotions and behaviors, in the past and present. Methodology: The applied mixed methods comprised quantitative self-reporting questionnaires and qualitative interviews. The former included 440 participants (mean age 27.6) who had trained for at least one year in a sports union youth department; the latter included 14 participants (aged 23\u201337). These competitive athletes came from eight branches of sports. The interviews were analyzed based on the Narrative Approach. Results: According to the quantitative study, all participants had experienced coach violence at least once during their career, mainly psychological violence and neglect, followed by physical violence. Sexual violence was least reported. The age of their retirement from sports and the number of coaches that they had had were significant predictors of violence. Thematic analysis of the qualitative interviews resulted in six types of coach-athlete violence: (1) psychological violence; (2) verbal violence; (3) starvation and food fattening; (4) non-proportional punishing; (5) physical violence; and (6) sexual violence. Conclusions: It is vital that coach-athlete violence is addressed in public discourse, that the topic of young athletes\u2019 safety is introduced into coaching education, and that a position holder is nominated to be in charge of such safety in all sports organizations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs14060486","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,10]],"date-time":"2024-06-10T10:08:43Z","timestamp":1718014123000},"page":"486","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Clear Yet Crossed: Athletes\u2019 Retrospective Reports of Coach Violence"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4138-6360","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sima","family":"Zach","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Levinsky-Wingate Academic College, Wingate Institute, Tel Aviv 6937808, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shlomit","family":"Guy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Physical Education, The Kaye College of Education, Beersheba 8414201, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rinat","family":"Ben-Yechezkel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Levinsky-Wingate Academic College, Wingate Institute, Tel Aviv 6937808, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1456-6083","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liza","family":"Grosman-Rimon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Levinsky-Wingate Academic College, Wingate Institute, Tel Aviv 6937808, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"574","DOI":"10.1080\/17437199.2020.1760728","article-title":"Physical activity and subjective well-being in healthy individuals: A meta-analytic review","volume":"15","author":"Buecker","year":"2021","journal-title":"Health Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1255","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-020-01274-z","article-title":"Measuring well-being in sport performers: Where are we now and how do we progress?","volume":"50","author":"Giles","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"8","article-title":"Can exercise affect immune function to increase susceptibility to infection?","volume":"26","author":"Simpson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exerc. Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Brackenridge, C., Fasting, K., Kirby, S., and Leahy, T. (2010). Protecting Children from Violence in Sport; A Review from Industrialized Countries, UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1136\/bjsports-2016-096121","article-title":"International Olympic Committee consensus statement: Harassment and abuse (non-accidental violence) in sport","volume":"50","author":"Mountjoy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kerr, G., Kidd, B., and Donnelly, P. (2020). One step forward, two steps back: The struggle for child protection in canadian sport. Soc. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/socsci9050068"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2017.12.013","article-title":"Severe interpersonal violence against children in sport: Associated mental health problems and quality of life in adulthood","volume":"76","author":"Vertommen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Child Abus. Negl."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smr.2019.06.002","article-title":"Examining institutional work that perpetuates abuse in sport organizations","volume":"23","author":"Nite","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sport Manag. Rev."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2017.05.012","article-title":"Prevalence of interpersonal violence against athletes in the sport context","volume":"16","author":"Parent","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1080\/17430437.2016.1179735","article-title":"Understanding sports violence: Revisiting foundational explorations","volume":"20","author":"Matthews","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sport Soc."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9973.1971.tb00323.x","article-title":"Intentionalistic explanations of action","volume":"2","author":"Audi","year":"1971","journal-title":"Metaphilosophy"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Salmi, J. (1993). Violence and Democratic Society, Zed Books."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dunning, E. (2008). Violence and violence-control in long-term perspective: \u2018Testing\u2019 Elias in relation to war, genocide, crime, punishment and sport. Violence in Europe, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-74508-4_13"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Imbusch, P. (2003). The concept of violence. International Handbook of Violence Research, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-306-48039-3_2"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and Symbolic Power, Harvard University Press."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1177\/1524838016663937","article-title":"Sports fans, alcohol use, and violent behavior: A sociological review","volume":"19","author":"Ostrowsky","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trauma Violence Abus."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1080\/16138171.2012.11687896","article-title":"Athletic participation and the approval and use of violence: A comparison of adolescent males in different sports disciplines","volume":"9","author":"Mutz","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Sport Soc."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.avb.2018.11.007","article-title":"Unsanctioned aggression and violence in amateur sport: A multidisciplinary synthesis","volume":"44","author":"Spaaij","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aggress. Violent Behav."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"83","article-title":"The person who loves me the most is also the person who hurts me the most: Power relations between a single coach and an athlete from the athletes\u2019 point of view","volume":"9","author":"Guy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Spirit Sport (Ruach Ha\u2019Sport)"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1080\/17430437.2015.1124567","article-title":"\u2018You don\u2019t realize what you see!\u2019: The institutional context of emotional abuse in elite youth sport","volume":"20","author":"Jacobs","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sport Soc."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1080\/1612197X.2013.752173","article-title":"The perceived effects of elite athletes\u2019 experiences of emotional abuse in the coach-athlete relationship","volume":"11","author":"Stirling","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"772","DOI":"10.1177\/1747954116676103","article-title":"Perceptions of emotional abuse in the coach\u2013athlete relationship in youth sport: The influence of competitive level and outcome","volume":"11","author":"Gervis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1123\/wspaj.2019-0054","article-title":"\u201cIt Was the Worst Time in My Life\u201d: The effects of emotionally abusive coaching on female Canadian national team athletes","volume":"28","author":"Kerr","year":"2020","journal-title":"Women Sport Phys. Act. J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1080\/09555803.2016.1213761","article-title":"Punishing coaching: Bukatsud\u014d and the normalisation of coach violence","volume":"29","author":"McDonald","year":"2017","journal-title":"Jpn. Forum"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2350248","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2023.50248","article-title":"Experiences of interpersonal violence in sport and perceived coaching style among college athletes","volume":"7","author":"Zogg","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.47197\/retos.v50.98143","article-title":"Mistreatment behaviours in the Athlete-coach relationship","volume":"2023","author":"Marracho","year":"2023","journal-title":"Retos"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1080\/16138171.2017.1318106","article-title":"Sexual harassment and abuse in coach\u2013athlete relationships in Sweden","volume":"14","author":"Johansson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Sport Soc."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"WHO (1999). Report of the Consultation on Child Abuse Prevention (No. WHO\/HSC\/PVI\/99.1), WHO."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1080\/19406940.2014.971850","article-title":"The (limited) impact of sport policy on parental behaviour in youth sport: A qualitative inquiry in junior Australian football","volume":"7","author":"Elliott","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Policy Politics"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.32996\/jspes.2022.2.2.1","article-title":"Exploring Lived Experience of Abusive Behavior among Youth Hockey Coaches","volume":"2","author":"LoGuercio","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Sports Phys. Educ. Stud."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1260\/1747-9541.5.4.503","article-title":"The development of a typology of abusive coaching behaviours within youth sport","volume":"5","author":"Raakman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Atkinson, M. (2016). Masculinity on the menu: Body Slimming and self-starvation as physical culture. Challenging Myths of Masculinity, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315571188-5"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13188","DOI":"10.1111\/obr.13188","article-title":"Weight cycling practices in sport: A risk factor for later obesity?","volume":"22","author":"Isacco","year":"2021","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"144","article-title":"Lightest weight-class athletes are at higher risk of weight regain: Results from the French-Rapid Weight Loss Questionnaire","volume":"51","author":"Ennequin","year":"2022","journal-title":"Physician Sportsmed."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jeckell, A.S., Copenhaver, E.A., and Diamond, A.B. (2020). Hazing and bullying in athletic culture. Mental Health in the Athlete, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-44754-0_13"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.3389\/fspor.2021.643707","article-title":"Sexual violence and the coach\u2013athlete relationship: A scoping review from sport sociological and sport psychological perspectives","volume":"3","author":"Gaedicke","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Sports Act. Living"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Human Rights Watch (2022, August 18). I Was Hit So Many Times, I Can\u2019t Count. Available online: https:\/\/www.hrw.org\/report\/2020\/07\/20\/i-was-hitso-many-times-i-cant-count\/abuse-child-athletes-japan."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1002\/car.2353","article-title":"The prevalence of child maltreatment across the globe: Review of a series of meta-analyses","volume":"24","author":"Stoltenborgh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Child Abus. Rev."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lang, M., and Hartill, M. (2014). Safeguarding, Child Protection and Abuse in Sport: International Perspectives in Research, Policy and Practice, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203628515"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.3390\/socsci3030326","article-title":"Child protection in sport: Reflections on thirty years of science and activism","volume":"3","author":"Brackenridge","year":"2014","journal-title":"Soc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Creswell, J.W. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Approaches, Sage."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1177\/1558689813505358","article-title":"Toward a conceptualization of mixed methods phenomenological research","volume":"9","author":"Mayoh","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Mix. Methods Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.5172\/mra.3.2.114","article-title":"Call for mixed analysis: A philosophical framework for combining qualitative and quantitative approaches","volume":"3","author":"Onwuegbuzie","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Mult. Res. Approaches"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1080\/07053436.2019.1682262","article-title":"Development and initial factor validation of the Violence Toward Athletes Questionnaire (VTAQ) in a sample of young athletes","volume":"42","author":"Parent","year":"2019","journal-title":"Loisir et Soci\u00e9t\u00e9\/Soc. Leis."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1177\/135910457000100301","article-title":"Back-translation for cross-cultural research","volume":"1","author":"Brislin","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Cross-Cult. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1037\/apl0001050","article-title":"Back-translation practices in organizational research: Avoiding loss in translation","volume":"108","author":"Klotz","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Appl. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1177\/146879410100100307","article-title":"Thematic networks: An analytic tool for qualitative research","volume":"1","year":"2001","journal-title":"Qual. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"6","article-title":"Analysing qualitative data: More than \u2018identifying themes\u2019","volume":"2","author":"Bazeley","year":"2009","journal-title":"Malays. J. Qual. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"272","article-title":"Ensuring the quality of the findings of qualitative research: Looking at trustworthiness criteria","volume":"5","author":"Anney","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Emerg. Trends Educ. Res. Policy Stud."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1177\/1468794106065006","article-title":"Validity in qualitative research revisited","volume":"6","author":"Cho","year":"2006","journal-title":"Qual. Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1075\/ni.20.1.10spe","article-title":"Narrative research: Time for a paradigm","volume":"20","year":"2010","journal-title":"Narrat. Inq."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1177\/1049732304266795","article-title":"Premises, principles, and practices in qualitative research: Revisiting the foundations","volume":"14","author":"Charmaz","year":"2004","journal-title":"Qual. Health Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1177\/101269001036004006","article-title":"Gender and cultural bias in perceptions of sexual harassment in sport","volume":"36","author":"Fejgin","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Sociol. Sport"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). The Law for Preventing Sexual Harassment. Available online: https:\/\/www.nevo.co.il\/law_html\/law00\/72507.htm."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"(2023, January 09). State Comptroller Report. (2018\u20132019). Applying the Law, Available online: https:\/\/www.mevaker.gov.il\/sites\/DigitalLibrary\/Pages\/Reports\/3285-2.aspx?AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"114","article-title":"The making of an expert","volume":"85","author":"Ericsson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Harv. Bus. Rev."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1177\/1747954119851246","article-title":"Burnout symptoms and recovery processes in eight elite soccer coaches over 10 years","volume":"14","author":"Lundkvist","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1177\/1747954119858458","article-title":"The roles of coaches, peers, and parents in athletes\u2019 basic psychological needs: A mixed-studies review","volume":"14","author":"Chu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Sci. Coach."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2005.08.007","article-title":"Predicting young athletes\u2019 motivational indices as a function of their perceptions of the coach-and peer-created climate","volume":"7","author":"Vazou","year":"2006","journal-title":"Psychol. Sport Exerc."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"744","article-title":"Self-confidence level in professional athletes; an examination of exposure to violence, branch and socio-demographic aspects","volume":"11","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hum. Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1177\/0193723520973571","article-title":"Magnitude and risk factors for interpersonal violence experienced by Canadian teenagers in the sport context","volume":"45","author":"Parent","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Sport Soc. Issues"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1080\/10413200.2017.1298165","article-title":"Elite athletes\u2019 experience of coping with emotional abuse in the coach\u2013athlete relationship","volume":"29","author":"Kavanagh","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Appl. Sport Psychol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dai, D.Y., and Li, X. (2020). Behind an Accelerated Scientific Research Career: Dynamic Interplay of Endogenous and Exogenous Forces in Talent Development. Educ. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci10090220"}],"container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/14\/6\/486\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:55:46Z","timestamp":1760108146000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/14\/6\/486"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,8]]},"references-count":63,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["bs14060486"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bs14060486","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-328X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-328X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,8]]}}}