{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T00:19:55Z","timestamp":1769041195427,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,18]],"date-time":"2024-06-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1718668800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Nature Science Foundation of China","award":["32071072"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32071072"]}]},{"name":"National Nature Science Foundation of China","award":["32371115"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32371115"]}]},{"name":"National Nature Science Foundation of China","award":["4222022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4222022"]}]},{"name":"Beijing Natural Science Foundation","award":["32071072"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32071072"]}]},{"name":"Beijing Natural Science Foundation","award":["32371115"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32371115"]}]},{"name":"Beijing Natural Science Foundation","award":["4222022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4222022"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Oppositional defiant symptoms are some of the most common developmental symptoms in children and adolescents with and without oppositional defiant disorder. Research has addressed the close association of the parent\u2013child relationship (PCR) with oppositional defiant symptoms. However, it is necessary to further investigate the underlying mechanism for forming targeted intervention strategies. By using a machine learning-based causal forest (CF) model, we investigated the heterogeneous causal effects of the PCR on oppositional defiant symptoms in children in Chinese elementary schools. Based on the PCR improvement in two consecutive years, 423 children were divided into improved and control groups. The assessment of oppositional defiant symptoms (AODS) in the second year was set as the dependent variable. Additionally, several factors based on the multilevel family model and the baseline AODS in the first year were included as covariates. Consistent with expectations, the CF model showed a significant causal effect between the PCR and oppositional defiant symptoms in the samples. Moreover, the causality exhibited heterogeneity. The causal effect was greater in those children with higher baseline AODS, a worse family atmosphere, and lower emotion regulation abilities in themselves or their parents. Conversely, the parenting style played a positive role in causality. These findings enhance our understanding of how the PCR contributes to the development of oppositional defiant symptoms conditioned by factors from a multilevel family system. The heterogeneous causality in the observation data, established using the machine learning approach, could be helpful in forming personalized family-oriented intervention strategies for children with oppositional defiant symptoms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs14060504","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,18]],"date-time":"2024-06-18T03:42:06Z","timestamp":1718682126000},"page":"504","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Estimating the Heterogeneous Causal Effects of Parent\u2013Child Relationships among Chinese Children with Oppositional Defiant Symptoms: A Machine Learning Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Haiyan","family":"Zhou","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Information Technology, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China"},{"name":"Beijing International Collaboration Base on Brain Informatics and Wisdom Services, Beijing 100124, China"},{"name":"Engineering Research Center of Intelligent Perception and Autonomous Control, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100124, China"},{"name":"Engineering Research Center of Digital Community, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100124, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8147-3322","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fengkai","family":"Han","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Information Technology, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China"},{"name":"Beijing International Collaboration Base on Brain Informatics and Wisdom Services, Beijing 100124, China"},{"name":"Engineering Research Center of Intelligent Perception and Autonomous Control, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100124, China"},{"name":"Engineering Research Center of Digital Community, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100124, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1163-0353","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ruoxi","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"},{"name":"Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jiajin","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Information Technology, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China"},{"name":"Beijing International Collaboration Base on Brain Informatics and Wisdom Services, Beijing 100124, China"},{"name":"Engineering Research Center of Intelligent Perception and Autonomous Control, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100124, China"},{"name":"Engineering Research Center of Digital Community, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100124, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jianhui","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Information Technology, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China"},{"name":"Beijing International Collaboration Base on Brain Informatics and Wisdom Services, Beijing 100124, China"},{"name":"Engineering Research Center of Intelligent Perception and Autonomous Control, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100124, China"},{"name":"Engineering Research Center of Digital Community, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100124, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiuyun","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"},{"name":"Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education, Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2013). 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