{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,21]],"date-time":"2026-04-21T02:17:55Z","timestamp":1776737875649,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":87,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,11]],"date-time":"2024-10-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1728604800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Department of Veterans Affairs Office of Academic Affiliations Advanced Fellowship Program in Mental Illness Research and Treatment"},{"name":"Medical Research Service of the VA Palo Alto Health Care System"},{"name":"Department of Veterans Affairs Sierra Pacific Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center (MIRECC)"},{"name":"War-Related Illness and Injury Study Center (WRIISC)"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Objectives: There is conflicting evidence regarding congruence between subjective cognitive decline and objective cognitive performance for individuals with a history of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). The current study investigated the congruity between subjective and objective cognition, particularly working memory, among veterans with an mTBI history, accounting for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and childhood trauma. Methods: Participants included 35 veterans with a history of mTBI sustained during deployment. Participants completed measures of subjective [i.e., Behavioral Inventory Rating of Executive Functioning (BRIEF)] and objective working memory (i.e., WAIS-IV working memory index). Congruity between subjective and objective working memory was examined using linear regression. Bonferroni-corrected correlations were run to explore relationships among working memory, psychiatric symptoms, mTBI severity, and childhood trauma. Results: Among Veterans with mTBI, subjective working memory and objective working memory performance were not significantly related (p &gt; 0.05); however, the overall model was significant (p &lt; 0.0001), and childhood trauma was a notable predictor (p = 0.02). Greater PTSD, depression, and sleep symptoms were significantly related to increased subjective working memory concerns, even after Bonferroni adjustments (ps &lt; 0.0001). Better objective working memory was significantly related to a fewer number of childhood traumatic events; however, this did not sustain corrections. The majority of individuals (67%) endorsed significant working memory complaints, despite objectively performing within normal limits (within 1 SD and above). Conclusions: Subjective-objective working memory congruity among veterans with mTBI was limited. Subjective, but not objective, working memory concerns were associated with greater PTSD, depression, and sleep symptoms. Childhood trauma was a notable factor that contributed to both subjective and objective cognitive concerns. There remains clinical value in assessing subjective cognitive concerns given the strong relationships with psychiatric problems and, hence, a focus for intervention.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs14100932","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,11]],"date-time":"2024-10-11T08:54:27Z","timestamp":1728636867000},"page":"932","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Examination of Congruity between Subjective and Objective Working Memory in Veterans with Mild TBI and Relation to Psychiatric Symptoms and Childhood Trauma"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-5261-8090","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lisa N.","family":"Cruz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Palo Alto Healthcare System, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nicole C.","family":"Walker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Palo Alto Healthcare System, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sonia S.","family":"Rehman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Chesapeake Center, Bethesda, MD 20817, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"M. Windy","family":"McNerney","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Palo Alto Healthcare System, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2351-7251","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michelle R.","family":"Madore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA Palo Alto Healthcare System, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1097\/HTR.0b013e31819581d8","article-title":"Traumatic brain injury screening: Preliminary findings in a US Army Brigade Combat Team","volume":"24","author":"Terrio","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Head Trauma Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa072972","article-title":"Mild Traumatic brain injury in U.S. soldiers returning from Iraq","volume":"358","author":"Hoge","year":"2008","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1446","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwn068","article-title":"Understanding sequelae of injury mechanisms and mild traumatic brain injury incurred during the conflicts in Iraq and afghanistan: Persistent postconcussive symptoms and posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"167","author":"Schneiderman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.neuropsych.16050100","article-title":"Traumatic Brain Injury in Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans: New Results From a National Random Sample Study","volume":"29","author":"Lindquist","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neuropsychiatry"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1097\/HTR.0b013e3181e50ef1","article-title":"Prevalence, assessment, and treatment of mild traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorder: A systematic review of the evidence","volume":"26","author":"Carlson","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Head Trauma Rehabil"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1179069519892933","DOI":"10.1177\/1179069519892933","article-title":"Traumatic Brain Injury and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Comorbid Consequences of War","volume":"14","author":"Dieter","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurosci. Insights"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Hayes, J.P. (2019). PTSD and TBI Comorbidity. PTSD Res. Q., 30, Available online: https:\/\/www.ptsd.va.gov\/publications\/rq_docs\/V30N2.pdf."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.3109\/02699052.2013.873821","article-title":"PTSD and TBI co-morbidity: Scope, clinical presentation and treatment options","volume":"28","author":"Tanev","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Inj."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1002\/jts.22110","article-title":"Mild Traumatic Brain Injury, PTSD, and Psychosocial Functioning Among Male and Female U.S. OEF\/OIF Veterans","volume":"29","author":"Jackson","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Trauma. Stress."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1097\/NMD.0b013e3181b97a75","article-title":"Posttraumatic stress disorder mediates the relationship between mild traumatic brain injury and health and psychosocial functioning in veterans of operations enduring freedom and Iraqi freedom","volume":"197","author":"Pietrzak","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Nerv. Ment. Dis."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.bp.111.096461","article-title":"Neuropsychological outcomes of mild traumatic brain injury, post-traumatic stress disorder and depression in Iraq-deployed US Army soldiers","volume":"201","author":"Vasterling","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1080\/08995600802574530","article-title":"The Relationship Between Childhood Trauma, Combat Exposure, and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Male Veterans","volume":"21","author":"Owens","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mil. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"33","article-title":"Childhood abuse experiences and combat-related PTSD","volume":"7","author":"Zaidi","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Trauma. Stress."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2012.03.004","article-title":"Childhood trauma exposure in Iraq and Afghanistan war era veterans: Implications for posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and adult functional social support","volume":"36","author":"Dedert","year":"2012","journal-title":"Child Abuse Negl."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"984","DOI":"10.1002\/da.20605","article-title":"Risk and resilience: Genetic and environmental influences on development of the stress response","volume":"26","author":"Gillespie","year":"2009","journal-title":"Depress. Anxiety"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1364.020","article-title":"Developmental epidemiology of PTSD: Self-regulation as a central mechanism","volume":"1071","author":"Koenen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ann N. Y. Acad Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-200662","article-title":"Does Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Increase the Risk for Dementia? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"78","author":"Snowden","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, Y.-K., Hou, S.-W., Lee, C.-C., Hsu, C.-Y., Huang, Y.-S., and Su, Y.-C. (2013). Increased risk of dementia in patients with mild traumatic brain injury: A nationwide cohort study. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0062422"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2018.0815","article-title":"Association of Mild Traumatic Brain Injury With and Without Loss of Consciousness With Dementia in US Military Veterans","volume":"75","author":"Barnes","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"55","article-title":"Dementia in military and veteran populations: A review of risk factors-traumatic brain injury, post-traumatic stress disorder, deployment, and sleep","volume":"8","author":"Raza","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mil. Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1038\/s41582-018-0041-8","article-title":"Risk of dementia after TBI\u2014A cause of growing concern","volume":"14","author":"Pattinson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"600","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.2020.150","article-title":"Post-traumatic stress disorder as a risk factor for dementia: Systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"217","author":"Billings","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1001\/archgenpsychiatry.2010.61","article-title":"Posttraumatic stress disorder and risk of dementia among US veterans","volume":"67","author":"Yaffe","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xie, Z., Li, M., Sun, H., Zhou, C., Fu, C., Wang, Q., Dong, C., Hao, W., Zhen, X., and Zhu, D. (2023). Childhood, adulthood, and cumulative traumatic events experienced from childhood to adulthood and dementia risk. J. Public Health, 1\u201311.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-2726742\/v1"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abouelmagd, M.E., AbdelMeseh, M., Elrosasy, A., Eldeeb, H.A., and Nabil, Y. (2024). Adverse childhood experiences and risk of late-life dementia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Soc. Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol., 1\u201311.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00127-024-02676-4"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Vespa, J. (2023). Aging Veterans: America\u2019s Veteran Population in Later Life. American Community Survey Reports, United States Census Bureau."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"277","article-title":"Association of Subjective Cognitive Decline with Risk of Cognitive Impairment and Dementia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prospective Longitudinal Studies","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Prev. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u00c1vila-Villanueva, M., Rebollo-V\u00e1zquez, A., de Le\u00f3n, J.M.R.-S., Valent\u00ed, M., Medina, M., and Fern\u00e1ndez-Bl\u00e1zquez, M.A. (2016). Clinical Relevance of Specific Cognitive Complaints in Determining Mild Cognitive Impairment from Cognitively Normal States in a Study of Healthy Elderly Controls. Front. Aging Neurosci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnagi.2016.00233"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2016.02.002","article-title":"Preclinical Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Definition, natural history, and diagnostic criteria","volume":"12","author":"Dubois","year":"2016","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jalz.2014.01.001","article-title":"A conceptual framework for research on subjective cognitive decline in preclinical Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"10","author":"Jessen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Alzheimers Dement"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(19)30368-0","article-title":"The characterisation of subjective cognitive decline","volume":"19","author":"Jessen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1002\/1099-1166(200011)15:11<983::AID-GPS238>3.0.CO;2-5","article-title":"Are memory complaints predictive for dementia? A review of clinical and population-based studies","volume":"15","author":"Jonker","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1159\/000096295","article-title":"Subjective memory complaints and cognitive impairment in older people","volume":"22","author":"Reid","year":"2006","journal-title":"Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arcmed.2012.10.011","article-title":"Mild cognitive impairment\u2014The continuing challenge of its \u201creal-world\u201d detection and diagnosis","volume":"43","author":"Stewart","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arch Med. Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E30","DOI":"10.1097\/HTR.0000000000000308","article-title":"The Deployment Trauma Phenotype and Employment Status in Veterans of the Wars in Iraq and Afghanistan","volume":"33","author":"Amick","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Head. Trauma. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1682\/JRRD.2014.12.0301","article-title":"Association between mild traumatic brain injury and mental health problems and self-reported cognitive dysfunction in Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans","volume":"53","author":"Seal","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Rehabil. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1618","DOI":"10.1002\/mds.28115","article-title":"Subjective Cognitive Complaint in Parkinson\u2019s Disease Patients With Normal Cognition: Canary in the Coal Mine?","volume":"35","author":"Purri","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mov. Disord"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3444","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-021-10519-4","article-title":"Correlates of the discrepancy between objective and subjective cognitive functioning in non-demented patients with Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"268","author":"Siciliano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurol"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617722000212","article-title":"Relationship between subjective report and objective assessment of neurocognitive functioning in persons with multiple sclerosis","volume":"29","author":"Thomas","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Srisurapanont, M., Suttajit, S., Eurviriyanukul, K., and Varnado, P. (2017). Discrepancy between objective and subjective cognition in adults with major depressive disorder. Sci. Rep., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-04353-w"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1007\/s11065-016-9332-2","article-title":"Subjective Cognitive Complaints and Objective Cognitive Function in Aging: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Recent Cross-Sectional Findings","volume":"26","author":"Burmester","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1037\/a0035908","article-title":"Examining the relationship between subjective and objective memory performance in older adults: A meta-analysis","volume":"29","author":"Crumley","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol. Aging"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1093\/arclin\/acaa006","article-title":"Associations Between Multiple Remote Mild TBIs and Objective Neuropsychological Functioning and Subjective Symptoms in Combat-Exposed Veterans","volume":"35","author":"Merritt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"948","DOI":"10.1080\/23279095.2022.2096452","article-title":"Disentangling subjective symptom complaints and objective cognitive performance in veterans: Impact of posttraumatic stress disorder and lifetime traumatic brain injury burden","volume":"31","author":"Neale","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Neuropsychol. Adult"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1093\/arclin\/acaa067.09","article-title":"A-09 The Relationship Between Subjective Cognitive Complaints, Depression, and Executive Functioning in TBI Veterans","volume":"35","author":"Scott","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1093\/arclin\/acaa024","article-title":"The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function(R)-Adult Version is Related to Emotional Distress, Not Executive Dysfunction, in a Veteran Sample","volume":"35","author":"Shwartz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Arch Clin. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1080\/13854046.2017.1390163","article-title":"Longitudinal study of objective and subjective cognitive performance and psychological distress in OEF\/OIF Veterans with and without traumatic brain injury","volume":"32","author":"Donnelly","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E488","DOI":"10.1097\/HTR.0000000000000748","article-title":"Neuropsychological Performance and Functional Capacity Following Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in Veterans","volume":"37","author":"Clark","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Head. Trauma. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clausen, A.N., Bouchard, H.C., Workgroup, V.M.-A.M., Welsh-Bohmer, K.A., and Morey, R.A. (2021). Assessment of Neuropsychological Function in Veterans With Blast-Related Mild Traumatic Brain Injury and Subconcussive Blast Exposure. Front. Psychol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.686330"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1002\/da.20476","article-title":"Neuropsychological performance is related to current social and occupational functioning in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder","volume":"26","author":"Geuze","year":"2009","journal-title":"Depress. Anxiety"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eurpsy.2005.06.004","article-title":"Executive function and memory in posttraumatic stress disorder: A study of Bosnian war veterans","volume":"21","author":"Koso","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"E438","article-title":"Latent Neuropsychological Profiles to Discriminate Mild Traumatic Brain Injury and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Active-Duty Service Members","volume":"37","author":"Esopenko","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Head. Trauma. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-022-02011-y","article-title":"An executive function subtype of PTSD with unique neural markers and clinical trajectories","volume":"12","author":"Rothlein","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.neuropsych.20050128","article-title":"Independent and Synergistic Associations Between TBI Characteristics and PTSD Symptom Clusters on Cognitive Performance and Postconcussive Symptoms in Iraq and Afghanistan Veterans","volume":"33","author":"Jurick","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1080\/13803395.2019.1611740","article-title":"Variables associated with subjective cognitive change among Iraq and Afghanistan war Veterans with blast-related mild traumatic brain injury","volume":"41","author":"Karr","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1037\/neu0000560","article-title":"The Impact of PTSD and mTBI on the Relationship between Subjective and Objective Cognitive Deficits in Combat-Exposed Veterans","volume":"33","author":"Mattson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1007\/s11682-018-9987-9","article-title":"Effect of blast-related mTBI on the working memory system: A resting state fMRI study","volume":"14","author":"Pagulayan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Imaging Behav."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1090","DOI":"10.1177\/07334648211058718","article-title":"Adverse Childhood Experiences and Subjective Cognitive Decline in the US","volume":"41","author":"Brown","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Appl. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"125","article-title":"Adverse childhood experience categories and subjective cognitive decline in adulthood: An analysis of the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System","volume":"123","author":"Terry","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Am. Osteopat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2214","DOI":"10.1080\/13607863.2021.2017848","article-title":"Association of adverse childhood experiences with subjective cognitive decline in adulthood: Findings from a population-based study","volume":"26","author":"Baiden","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aging Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1002\/wps.21122","article-title":"Adverse childhood experiences: A meta-analysis of prevalence and moderators among half a million adults in 206 studies","volume":"22","author":"Madigan","year":"2023","journal-title":"World Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2014.724","article-title":"Disparities in adverse childhood experiences among individuals with a history of military service","volume":"71","author":"Blosnich","year":"2014","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"698","DOI":"10.1037\/tra0000614","article-title":"The impact of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and combat exposure on mental health conditions among new post-9\/11 veterans","volume":"12","author":"Aronson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychol Trauma"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giano, Z., Wheeler, D.L., and Hubach, R.D. (2020). The frequencies and disparities of adverse childhood experiences in the U.S. BMC Public Health, 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-020-09411-z"},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Weathers, F., Huska, J., and Keane, T. (1991). The PTSD Checklist Military Version (PCL-M), National Center for PTSD."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7967(96)00033-2","article-title":"Psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist (PCL)","volume":"34","author":"Blanchard","year":"1996","journal-title":"Behav. Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Beck, A.T., Steer, R.A., and Brown, G.K. (1996). Manual for the Beck Depression Inventory-II, Psychological Corporation.","DOI":"10.1037\/t00742-000"},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"331","article-title":"Quantification of subjective sleep quality in healthy elderly men and women using the pittsburgh sleep quality index (PSQI)","volume":"14","author":"Buysse","year":"1991","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gioia, G.A., Isquith, P.K., Guy, S.C., and Kenworthy, L. (2000). The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function, Psychological Assessment Resources.","DOI":"10.1037\/t73087-000"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e109","DOI":"10.1093\/geront\/gnw091","article-title":"Subjective Cognitive Impairment and Affective Symptoms: A Systematic Review","volume":"56","author":"Hill","year":"2016","journal-title":"Gerontologist"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1097\/HTR.0000000000000618","article-title":"Making a difference: Affective distress explains discrepancy between objective and subjective cognitive functioning after mild traumatic brain injury","volume":"36","author":"Caplan","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Head Trauma Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617723000607","article-title":"Detecting cognitive decline in high-functioning older adults: The relationship between subjective cognitive concerns, frequency of high neuropsychological test scores, and the frontoparietal control network","volume":"30","author":"Karr","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S171","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-150202","article-title":"Evolving Evidence for the Value of Neuroimaging Methods and Biological Markers in Subjects Categorized with Subjective Cognitive Decline","volume":"48","author":"Lista","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madison, A.A., Andridge, R., Kantaras, A.H., Renna, M.E., Bennett, J.M., Alfano, C.M., Povoski, S.P., Agnese, D.M., Lustberg, M., and Wesolowski, R. (2023). Depression, Inflammation, and Intestinal Permeability: Associations with Subjective and Objective Cognitive Functioning throughout Breast Cancer Survivorship. Cancers, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/cancers15174414"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1080\/13803395.2020.1776847","article-title":"Response inhibition in Veterans with a history of mild traumatic brain injury: The role of self-reported complaints in objective performance","volume":"42","author":"Holiday","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Majer, M., Nater, U.M., Lin, J.-M.S., Capuron, L., and Reeves, W.C. (2010). Association of childhood trauma with cognitive function in healthy adults: A pilot study. BMC Neurol., 10.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2377-10-61"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.5964\/ejop.v13i4.1373","article-title":"The Effects of Maltreatment in Childhood on Working Memory Capacity in Adulthood","volume":"13","author":"Dodaj","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1556","DOI":"10.1002\/mpr.1556","article-title":"A methodology for assessing deployment trauma and its consequences in OEF\/OIF\/OND veterans: The TRACTS longitudinal prospective cohort study","volume":"26","author":"McGlinchey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Methods Psychiatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1080\/09540261.2019.1580686","article-title":"The association between PTSD and cardiovascular disease and its risk factors in male veterans of the Iraq\/Afghanistan conflicts: A systematic review","volume":"31","author":"Dyball","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1111\/acps.12336","article-title":"Risk of dementia and mild cognitive impairment in older people with subjective memory complaints: Meta-analysis","volume":"130","author":"Mitchell","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatr. Scand."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1007\/s11065-021-09522-3","article-title":"Subjective Cognitive Decline: Level of Risk for Future Dementia and Mild Cognitive Impairment, a Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal Studies","volume":"32","author":"Pike","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neuropsychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104629","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijnurstu.2023.104629","article-title":"Predictors of progression from subjective cognitive decline to objective cognitive impairment: A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies","volume":"149","author":"An","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Nurs. Stud."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1745","DOI":"10.1080\/13854046.2023.2184720","article-title":"Subjective memory complaints are associated with decreased cortical thickness in Veterans with histories of mild traumatic brain injury","volume":"37","author":"Ly","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clin. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1017\/S135561772300070X","article-title":"Alzheimer disease biomarkers are associated with decline in subjective memory, attention, and spatial navigation ability in clinically normal adults","volume":"30","author":"Levine","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1965","DOI":"10.1017\/S1041610217001636","article-title":"Subjective cognitive impairment and quality of life: A systematic review","volume":"29","author":"Hill","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Psychogeriatr."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1939","DOI":"10.1017\/S1041610217001399","article-title":"Subjective cognitive decline is longitudinally associated with lower health-related quality of life","volume":"29","author":"Roehr","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Psychogeriatr."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amepre.2009.10.006","article-title":"Traumatic brain injury hospitalizations of U.S. army soldiers deployed to afghanistan and Iraq","volume":"38","author":"Wojcik","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Prev. Med."}],"container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/14\/10\/932\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T16:11:13Z","timestamp":1760112673000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/14\/10\/932"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,11]]},"references-count":87,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10]]}},"alternative-id":["bs14100932"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bs14100932","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-328X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-328X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,11]]}}}