{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T01:48:59Z","timestamp":1791856139832,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,13]],"date-time":"2025-02-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1739404800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Universidad Se\u00f1or de Sip\u00e1n, Chiclayo\u2013Per\u00fa, Neuroscience, and Mental Health Research Group","award":["R56AG06911"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R56AG06911"]}]},{"name":"NIA\/NIH award","award":["R56AG06911"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R56AG06911"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The rising prevalence of dementia, particularly in low-income and developing countries, highlights the urgent need for effective cognitive screening tools. However, the existing tools often fail to address the unique needs of low-educated and illiterate populations, leading to diagnostic disparities. This review aimed to evaluate cognitive screening tests and domains employed globally to detect mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia in low-educated and illiterate older adults. Following the PRISMA guidelines, Searches were performed in Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed, targeting studies from January 2000 to 2023 involving adults over 45 years old. Of 1611 studies identified, 27 met the inclusion criteria and underwent pair review. The results revealed that most studies preferred adapting the existing tools to local languages over developing culturally tailored instruments. Twelve cognitive tests specifically designed for low-educated populations were identified, with the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) being the most utilized, despite their educational biases. Adjusting the cutoff points improved detection (e.g., MoCA: sensitivity 82.5%, specificity 82%). Notably, the Rowland Universal Dementia Assessment Scale (RUDAS) demonstrated superior performance for low-educated groups (sensitivity 89% and specificity 93%). The findings underscore the critical need for region-specific cognitive batteries that integrate functional assessments, ensuring equitable and accurate diagnosis across diverse educational backgrounds.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs15020207","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,13]],"date-time":"2025-02-13T05:10:22Z","timestamp":1739423422000},"page":"207","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":22,"title":["Dementia and Mild Cognitive Impairment Identification in Illiterate and Low-Educated People: Systematic Review About the Use of Brief Cognitive Screening Tools"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0497-5270","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jonathan Adri\u00e1n","family":"Zegarra-Valdivia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Se\u00f1or de Sip\u00e1n, Km5 Road to Pimentel, Chiclayo 14001, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8169-263X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brenda","family":"Chino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center of Cognitive and Computational Neuroscience, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Achucarro Basque Center for Neuroscience, 48940 Leioa, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kuripacha","family":"Tituana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Brain Health Institute (GBHI), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 90025, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9615-4981","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lina","family":"Zapata-Restrepo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Brain Health Institute (GBHI), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 90025, USA"},{"name":"Fundaci\u00f3n Valle del Lili, Cali 760031, Colombia"},{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Icesi, Cali 760031, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mar\u00eda Martha","family":"Unaucho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Brain Health Institute (GBHI), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 90025, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Milton","family":"Lopez-Norori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Brain Health Institute (GBHI), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 90025, USA"},{"name":"Fundaci\u00f3n Alzheimer de Nicaragua, Managua 14124, Nicaragua"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carmen","family":"Paredes-Manrique","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Psicologia, Universidad Tecnol\u00f3gica del Per\u00fa, Lima 15073, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8025-3272","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nilton","family":"Custodio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Peruano de Neurociencias, Lima 15046, Peru"},{"name":"Escuela Profesional de Medicina Humana, Universidad Privada San Juan Bautista, Lima 15067, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-170826","article-title":"The role of verb fluency in the detection of early cognitive impairment in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"62","author":"Alegret","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/0278-2626(89)90015-8","article-title":"Neuropsychological assessment in illiterates: Visuospatial and memory abilities","volume":"11","author":"Ardila","year":"1989","journal-title":"Brain and Cognition"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bai, W., Chen, P., Cai, H., Zhang, Q., Su, Z., Cheung, T., Jackson, T., Sha, S., and Xiang, Y. 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