{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T13:13:16Z","timestamp":1787922796664,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":89,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,15]],"date-time":"2025-02-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1739577600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Social understanding relies upon children\u2019s experience of the world and their communicative interaction with others. Opportunities to engage in cooperative social interaction, such as friendships, can foster the development of social understanding. Children with attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and dyslexia often have friendships of poorer quality. The present study examined relationships and differences in social understanding and friendship quality in children with ADHD or dyslexia, in comparison to neurotypically developing children (NTD). Participants were 192 primary-school students (Mage = 9.77, SD = 1.21) from Attica, Greece. Social understanding was measured with second-order and advanced theory of mind (ToM) tasks, and the Bryant\u2019s Index of Empathy for Children and Adolescents, while friendships were examined with the Friendship Quality Questionnaire. Children with ADHD scored significantly lower across all positive characteristics of friendship quality, empathy and advanced ToM than those with dyslexia, who in turn scored significantly lower than NTD children. Moreover, children with ADHD performed significantly worse in the second-order ToM tasks compared to children with NTD or dyslexia, while NTD children scored significantly lower in the friendship conflict betrayal subscale compared to both ADHD and dyslexia groups. Multiple regression analyses controlling for learning disability status, gender, and age showed that ToM and perceived empathy predict friendship quality characteristics in all groups of children. Our findings contribute to a better understanding of children\u2019s friendship relationships and give insight to parents and professionals involved in children\u2019s education, provision, and mental health care.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs15020216","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,17]],"date-time":"2025-02-17T04:40:25Z","timestamp":1739767225000},"page":"216","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Social Understanding and Friendships in Children with Attention Deficit\/Hyperactivity Disorder or Dyslexia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Sofia","family":"Kouvava","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics and Sustainable Development, Harokopio University of Athens, 17676 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4184-6830","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katerina","family":"Antonopoulou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Economics and Sustainable Development, Harokopio University of Athens, 17676 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8303-3769","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Constantinos M.","family":"Kokkinos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Primary Education, School of Education Sciences, Democritus University of Thrace, 68131 Alexandroupolis, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Asimina M.","family":"Ralli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 15772 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1007\/s40806-022-00329-w","article-title":"Friendship preferences: Examining desirable and undesirable traits in a friend","volume":"9","author":"Apostolou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Evolutionary Psychological Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-200111000-00008","article-title":"Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and problems in peer relations: Predictions from childhood to adolescence","volume":"40","author":"Bagwell","year":"2001","journal-title":"Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2015.12.013","article-title":"The role of social cognition and prosocial behaviour","volume":"49\u201350","author":"Bakopoulou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Research in Developmental Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1080\/00221325.2012.659233","article-title":"Theory of mind understanding and conversational patterns in middle childhood","volume":"174","author":"Bosacki","year":"2013","journal-title":"The Journal of Genetic Psychology"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1348\/026151007X235891","article-title":"The role of language, social cognition, and social skill in the functional social outcomes of young adolescents with and without a history of SLI","volume":"26","author":"Botting","year":"2008","journal-title":"British Journal of Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.68.2.313","article-title":"Self-regulation of affect in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and non-ADHD boys: Differences in emphatic reasoning","volume":"68","author":"Braaten","year":"2000","journal-title":"Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.2307\/1128984","article-title":"An index of empathy for children and adolescents","volume":"53","author":"Bryant","year":"1982","journal-title":"Child Development"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1037\/a0025402","article-title":"Longitudinal effects of theory of mind on later peer relations: The role of prosocial behavior","volume":"48","author":"Caputi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1177\/0272431609342983","article-title":"Early adolescents\u2019 participation in bullying: Is ToM involved?","volume":"30","author":"Caravita","year":"2010","journal-title":"The Journal of Early Adolescence"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1080\/21622965.2017.1297946","article-title":"Pragmatics of language and theory of mind in children with dyslexia with associated language difficulties of nonverbal learning disabilities","volume":"7","author":"Cardillo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Applied Neuropsychology: Child"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1111\/jopy.12255","article-title":"When empathy matters: The role of sex and empathy in close friendships","volume":"85","author":"Ciarrochi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Personality"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"122","article-title":"Empathy in the play of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"30","author":"Cordier","year":"2010","journal-title":"OTJR: Occupation, Participation, and Health"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Demir, M. (2015). Friendship and happiness: Across the life-span and cultures, Springer Science+Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-017-9603-3"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.12017","article-title":"Silent films and strange stories: Theory of mind, gender, and social experiences in middle childhood","volume":"84","author":"Devine","year":"2013","journal-title":"Child Development"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1002\/ab.20166","article-title":"Empathy and conflict resolution in friendship relations among adolescents","volume":"33","author":"Branje","year":"2007","journal-title":"Aggressive Behavior"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"132","article-title":"The educational, social, and emotional experiences of students with dyslexia: The perspective of postsecondary education students","volume":"30","year":"2015","journal-title":"International Journal of Special Education"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1080\/17439760.2010.536776","article-title":"Emotion understanding, theory of mind, and prosocial orientation: Relations over time in early childhood","volume":"6","author":"Eggum","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Positive Psychology"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Killen, M., and Smetana, J. G. (2006). Empathy-related responding in children. Handbook of moral development, Psychology Press.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781410615336"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1080\/24750573.2017.1387407","article-title":"Empathy and theory of mind abilities of children with specific learning disorder (SLD)","volume":"28","author":"Eyuboglu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychiatry and Clinical Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2389","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.12302","article-title":"False-belief understanding and social preference over the first 2 years of school: A longitudinal study","volume":"85","author":"Fink","year":"2014","journal-title":"Child Development"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/bjdp.12060","article-title":"Friendlessness and theory of mind: A prospective longitudinal study","volume":"33","author":"Fink","year":"2015a","journal-title":"British Journal of Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1111\/bjdp.12080","article-title":"Friends, friendlessness, and the social consequences of gaining a theory of mind","volume":"33","author":"Fink","year":"2015b","journal-title":"British Journal of Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.7334\/psicothema2016.376","article-title":"ADHD symptoms and peer problems: Mediation of executive function and theory of mind","volume":"29","author":"Forner","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psicothema"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcomdis.2015.03.002","article-title":"Performance of children with social communication disorder on the Happe\u2019 Strange Stories: Physical and mental state responses and relationship to language ability","volume":"55","author":"Freed","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Communication Disorders"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1080\/13803395.2016.1199663","article-title":"Cognitive and emotional empathy in typical and impaired readers and its relationship to reading competence","volume":"38","author":"Gabay","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"966","DOI":"10.1007\/s10578-016-0625-8","article-title":"The differential relations between empathy and internalizing and externalizing symptoms in inpatient adolescents","volume":"47","author":"Gambin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Child Psychiatry and Human Development"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1009432130076","article-title":"Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder as a social disability: Characteristics and suggested methods of treatment","volume":"12","author":"Gentschel","year":"2000","journal-title":"Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1177\/0165025415580805","article-title":"Can you read my mind? Age as a moderator in the relationship between theory of mind and relational aggression","volume":"39","author":"Talwar","year":"2015","journal-title":"International Journal of Behavioral Development"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1080\/00221320209598686","article-title":"Narrative discourse and theory of mind development","volume":"163","author":"Guajardo","year":"2002","journal-title":"The Journal of Genetic Psychology: Research and Theory on Human Development"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1177\/1073858419861912","article-title":"What guides us to neurally and behaviorally align with anyone specific? A neurobiological model based on fNIRS hyperscanning studies","volume":"26","author":"Gvirts","year":"2020","journal-title":"The Neuroscientist"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1080\/00224545.2018.1477442","article-title":"Empathy present and future","volume":"159","author":"Hall","year":"2019","journal-title":"The Journal of Social Psychology"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02172093","article-title":"An advanced test of theory of mind: Understanding of story characters\u2019 thoughts and feelings by able autistic, mentally handicapped, and normal children and adults","volume":"24","year":"1994","journal-title":"Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.121.3.355","article-title":"Friendships and adaptation in the life course","volume":"121","author":"Hartup","year":"1997","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1111\/bjdp.12186","article-title":"Reliability and validity of advanced theory-of-mind measures in middle childhood and adolescence","volume":"35","author":"Hayward","year":"2017","journal-title":"British Journal of Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2014.12.051","article-title":"Forms of friendship: A person-centered assessment of the quality, stability, and outcomes of different types of adolescent friends","volume":"77","author":"Hiatt","year":"2015","journal-title":"Personality and Individual Differences"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2016.01.006","article-title":"Training children\u2019s theory-of-mind: A meta-analysis of controlled studies","volume":"150","author":"Hofmann","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1111\/cdep.12124","article-title":"Individual differences in theory of mind from preschool to adolescence: Achievements and future directions","volume":"9","author":"Hughes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Child Development Perspectives"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9507.2004.00285.x","article-title":"What are the links between theory of mind and social relations? Review, reflections and new directions for studies of typical and atypical development","volume":"13","author":"Hughes","year":"2004","journal-title":"Social Development"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1192","DOI":"10.1037\/dev0000140","article-title":"Theory of mind and prosocial behavior in childhood: A meta-analytic review","volume":"52","author":"Imuta","year":"2016","journal-title":"Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1239918","article-title":"Reading literary fiction improves theory of mind","volume":"342","author":"Kidd","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2016.02.028","article-title":"Personality and relational aggression: Moral disengagement and friendship quality as mediators","volume":"95","author":"Kokkinos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Personality and Individual Differences"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"935","DOI":"10.1080\/03004430.2018.1503255","article-title":"Sibling and friendship relationships of children with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder and typical development","volume":"190","author":"Kouvava","year":"2020","journal-title":"Early Child Development and Care"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.1002\/pits.22812","article-title":"Psychometric properties of the Greek translation of the Friendship Quality Questionnaire","volume":"60","author":"Kouvava","year":"2023","journal-title":"Psychology in the Schools"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1207\/s15374424jccp3401_5","article-title":"Adolescent peer relations, friendships, and romantic relationships: Do they predict social anxiety and depression?","volume":"34","author":"Harrison","year":"2005","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2014.03.002","article-title":"Promoting theory of mind during middle childhood: A training program","volume":"126","author":"Lecce","year":"2014a","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Child Psychology"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1080\/17405629.2013.821944","article-title":"Long-term effect of theory of mind on school achievement: The role of sensitivity to criticism","volume":"11","author":"Lecce","year":"2014b","journal-title":"European Journal of Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a363","DOI":"10.4102\/ajod.v7i0.363","article-title":"Dyslexic learners\u2019 experiences with their peers and teachers in special and mainstream primary schools in North-West Province","volume":"7","author":"Leseyane","year":"2018","journal-title":"African Journal of Disability"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.9734\/BJESBS\/2014\/6379","article-title":"Does the presence of a learning disability elicit a stigmatization?","volume":"4","author":"Lisle","year":"2014","journal-title":"British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1080\/19404158.2018.1479975","article-title":"Developmental dyslexia: Emotional impact and consequences","volume":"23","author":"Livingston","year":"2018","journal-title":"Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1331","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054717710766","article-title":"Theory of mind and empathy in children with ADHD","volume":"23","author":"Maoz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Attention Disorders"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1111\/bjdp.12268","article-title":"Friendships in middle childhood: Links to peer and school identification, and general self-worth","volume":"37","author":"Maunder","year":"2019","journal-title":"British Journal of Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1002\/ddrr.35","article-title":"Peer problems in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Current status and future directions","volume":"14","author":"McQuade","year":"2008","journal-title":"Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1111\/sode.12213","article-title":"Friends in high places: A dyadic perspective on peer status as predictor of friendship quality and the mediating role of empathy and prosocial behaviour","volume":"26","author":"Meuwese","year":"2017","journal-title":"Social Development"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1080\/00221325.2020.1719024","article-title":"Thoughtful friends: Executive function relates to social problem solving and friendship quality in middle childhood","volume":"181","author":"Miller","year":"2020","journal-title":"The Journal of Genetic Psychology"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.13110\/merrpalmquar1982.64.3.0397","article-title":"Associations between theory of mind, executive function, and friendship quality in middle childhood","volume":"64","author":"Miller","year":"2018","journal-title":"Merrill-Palmer Quarterly"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.5964\/ejcop.v2i1.2","article-title":"The relationship between perceived parental bonding and bullying: The mediating role of empathy","volume":"2","author":"Mitsopoulou","year":"2013","journal-title":"The European Journal of Counselling Psychology"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"546","DOI":"10.1207\/S15374424JCCP3204_7","article-title":"Popularity, friendship quantity, and friendship quality: Interactive influences on children\u2019s loneliness, and depression","volume":"32","author":"Nangle","year":"2003","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-010-9450-x","article-title":"How do children with ADHD (mis)manage their real-life dyadic friendships? A multi-method investigation","volume":"39","author":"Normand","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology"},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"4","article-title":"Empathy throughout the curriculum: Using picture books to promote activism & equity","volume":"33","author":"Olmstead","year":"2023","journal-title":"The Language and Literacy Spectrum"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Operto, F. F., Smirni, D., Scuoppo, C., Padovano, C., Vivenzio, V., Quatrosi, G., Carotenuto, M., Precenzano, F., and Pastorino, G. M. G. (2021). Neuropsychological profile, emotional\/behavioral problems, and parental stress in children with neurodevelopmental disorders. Brain Sciences, 11, (5).","DOI":"10.3390\/brainsci11050584"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1080\/15248372.2011.563487","article-title":"The role of language games in children\u2019s understanding of mental states: A training study","volume":"12","author":"Ornaghi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Cognition and Development"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.29.4.611","article-title":"Friendship and friendship quality in middle childhood: Links with peer group acceptance and feelings of loneliness and social dissatisfaction","volume":"29","author":"Parker","year":"1993","journal-title":"Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Cicchetti, D., and Cohen, D. J. (2006). Peer relationships, child development, and adjustment: A developmental psychopathology perspective. Developmental psychopathology: Theory and method. Vol. 3: Risk, disorder, and adaptation, John Wiley & Sons, Inc."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-0965(85)90051-7","article-title":"\u201cJohn thinks that Mary thinks that\u2026\u201d Attribution of second order beliefs by 5\u201310-year-old children","volume":"39","author":"Perner","year":"1985","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Child Psychology"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baron-Cohen, S., Tager-Flusberg, H., and Lombardo, M. V. (2013). Understanding emotional and cognitive empathy: A neuropsychological perspective. Understanding other minds: Perspectives from developmental social neuroscience, Oxford University Press. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199692972.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1348\/026151002166415","article-title":"Mindreading and moral awareness in popular and rejected preschoolers","volume":"20","author":"Peterson","year":"2002","journal-title":"British Journal of Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054705284245","article-title":"Peer and parenting characteristics of boys and girls with subclinical attention problems","volume":"9","author":"Rielly","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of Attention Disorders"},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"99","article-title":"Theory of mind in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder compared to controls","volume":"2","author":"Saeedi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Analytical Research in Clinical Medicine"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1080\/17439760902819444","article-title":"Assessment of preschoolers\u2019 positive empathy: Concurrent and longitudinal relations with positive emotion, social competence, and sympathy","volume":"4","author":"Sallquist","year":"2009","journal-title":"The Journal of Positive Psychology"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2011.02488.x","article-title":"A prospective longitudinal study of children\u2019s theory of mind and adolescent involvement in bullying","volume":"53","author":"Shakoor","year":"2012","journal-title":"The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-6811.2006.00110.x","article-title":"Sibling relationships and best friendships in young adulthood: Warmth, conflict, and well-being","volume":"13","author":"Sherman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Personal Relationships"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9507.2009.00566.x","article-title":"Forms and functions of aggression in adolescent friendship selection and influence: A longitudinal social network analysis","volume":"19","author":"Sijtsema","year":"2010","journal-title":"Social Development"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.12372","article-title":"Meta-analysis of theory of mind and peer popularity in the preschool and early school years","volume":"86","author":"Slaughter","year":"2015","journal-title":"Child Development"},{"key":"ref_74","first-page":"449","article-title":"Deficits in theory of mind and executive function in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"2","author":"Soltani","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Novel Applied Sciences"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spender, K., Chen, Y.-W. R., Wilkes-Gillan, S., Parsons, L., Cantrill, A., Simon, M., Garcia, A., and Cordier, R. (2023). The friendships of children and youth with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review. PLoS ONE, 18, (8).","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0289539"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.2005.01466.x","article-title":"The impact of preschool inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity on social and academic development: A review","volume":"46","author":"Spira","year":"2005","journal-title":"Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2018.04.025","article-title":"Associations between abuse\/neglect and ADHD from childhood to young adulthood: A prospective nationally-representative twin study","volume":"81","author":"Stern","year":"2018","journal-title":"Child Abuse & Neglect"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1002\/pits.1040","article-title":"Social outcomes of children with ADHD: Contributing factors and implications for practice","volume":"38","author":"Stormont","year":"2001","journal-title":"Psychology in the Schools"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1353","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-014-9883-8","article-title":"Symptoms of ADHD and peer functioning: A transactional model of development","volume":"42","author":"Tseng","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"599","DOI":"10.1111\/sode.12353","article-title":"Interrelation between empathy and friendship development during (pre)adolescence and the moderating effect of developmental language disorder: A longitudinal study","volume":"28","author":"Willems","year":"2019","journal-title":"Social Development"},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"1","article-title":"Ability to distinguish genuine from non-genuine smiles in children aged 10- to 12-years: Associations with peer status, gender, social anxiety, and level of empathy","volume":"18","author":"Vassilopoulos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hellenic Journal of Psychology"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-394388-0.00001-0","article-title":"Loneliness in childhood: Toward the next generation of assessment and research","volume":"42","author":"Weeks","year":"2012","journal-title":"Advances in Child Development and Behavior"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jadohealth.2009.09.009","article-title":"Social and emotional impairment in children and adolescents with ADHD and the impact on quality of life","volume":"46","author":"Wehmeier","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Adolescent Health"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100945","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dr.2020.100945","article-title":"Correlates and antecedents of theory of mind development during middle childhood and adolescence: An integrated model","volume":"59","author":"Weimer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Developmental Review"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1097","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2009.01319.x","article-title":"Revisiting the strange stories: Revealing mentalizing impairments in autism","volume":"80","author":"White","year":"2009","journal-title":"Child Development"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1014701215315","article-title":"A multisource exploration of friendship patterns of children with learning disabilities","volume":"30","author":"Wiener","year":"2002","journal-title":"Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1007\/s00787-007-0612-5","article-title":"Selective difficulty in recognising facial expressions of emotion in boys with ADHD: General performance impairments or specific problems in social cognition?","volume":"16","author":"Yuill","year":"2007","journal-title":"European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.3724\/SP.J.1041.2008.00819","article-title":"The training effects of different linguistic interference on young Chinese performance on a theory of mind task","volume":"40","author":"Zhang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Acta Psychologica Sinica"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1007\/s12144-014-9243-4","article-title":"The mediating role of aggressive behaviour, emotional and behavioural instability on the association between ADHD symptoms and best friend conflicts","volume":"34","author":"Zucchetti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Current Psychology"}],"container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/15\/2\/216\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:34:56Z","timestamp":1760027696000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/15\/2\/216"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,15]]},"references-count":89,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]}},"alternative-id":["bs15020216"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bs15020216","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-328X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-328X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,15]]}}}