{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]],"date-time":"2026-06-27T15:48:57Z","timestamp":1782575337620,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,13]],"date-time":"2025-04-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1744502400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Max Planck Society","award":["ERC-COG-2021-101043747"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ERC-COG-2021-101043747"]}]},{"name":"Max Planck Society","award":["HA 6314\/4-2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HA 6314\/4-2"]}]},{"name":"Max Planck Society","award":["HA 6314\/10-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HA 6314\/10-1"]}]},{"name":"Humboldt Foundation","award":["ERC-COG-2021-101043747"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ERC-COG-2021-101043747"]}]},{"name":"Humboldt Foundation","award":["HA 6314\/4-2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HA 6314\/4-2"]}]},{"name":"Humboldt Foundation","award":["HA 6314\/10-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HA 6314\/10-1"]}]},{"name":"European Research Council","award":["ERC-COG-2021-101043747"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ERC-COG-2021-101043747"]}]},{"name":"European Research Council","award":["HA 6314\/4-2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HA 6314\/4-2"]}]},{"name":"European Research Council","award":["HA 6314\/10-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HA 6314\/10-1"]}]},{"name":"German Research Foundation","award":["ERC-COG-2021-101043747"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ERC-COG-2021-101043747"]}]},{"name":"German Research Foundation","award":["HA 6314\/4-2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HA 6314\/4-2"]}]},{"name":"German Research Foundation","award":["HA 6314\/10-1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HA 6314\/10-1"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Past research has extensively explored reading in English-speaking children with dyslexia who acquire a highly irregular and opaque orthography. Far less is known about the manifestation of dyslexia in shallow, highly consistent orthographies like German, especially in adults. To shed further light on the heterogenous manifestation of dyslexia in German-speaking adults, we assessed reading and reading-related abilities, spelling, cognitive abilities, and language learning experience in 33 healthy German-speaking adults (17 females) and 33 adults with dyslexia (20 females). The four main aims were to (1) elucidate the intricate relationship between cognitive and literacy abilities, (2) investigate persisting weaknesses, (3) determine the strongest predictors of dyslexia, and (4) investigate deficit profiles. Group comparisons revealed persistent deficits in almost all measures of reading and spelling, slight deficits in verbal working memory, but no visuospatial impairments in adults with dyslexia. Moreover, adults with dyslexia had considerably lower English skills and lower educational attainment. Overall, we found fewer and weaker links between literacy and cognitive measures in adults with dyslexia, indicating a dissociation between these skills. Spelling, word reading, and phonological awareness were the best predictors of dyslexia, but the most widespread deficit was rapid automatized naming. Our findings suggest a heterogeneous manifestation of dyslexia in German-speaking adults, with even low-level deficits persisting into adulthood despite the shallow nature of the German orthographic system.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs15040522","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,14]],"date-time":"2025-04-14T07:42:01Z","timestamp":1744616521000},"page":"522","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Cognitive\u2013Linguistic Profiles of German Adults with Dyslexia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Linda","family":"Eckert","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Group Cognition and Plasticity, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, 04103 Leipzig, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8084-1330","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gesa","family":"Hartwigsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Group Cognition and Plasticity, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, 04103 Leipzig, Germany"},{"name":"Wilhelm Wundt Institute for Psychology, Leipzig University, 04109 Leipzig, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9379-8183","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sabrina","family":"Turker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Group Cognition and Plasticity, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, 04103 Leipzig, Germany"},{"name":"Brain and Language Lab, Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1080\/10888430903117500","article-title":"Dutch dyslexia in adulthood: Core features and variety","volume":"14","author":"Bekebrede","year":"2010","journal-title":"Scientific Studies of Reading"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219414521665","article-title":"Working memory in children with learning disabilities in reading versus spelling: Searching for overlapping and specific cognitive factors","volume":"48","author":"Brandenburg","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Learning Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/s11881-013-0088-6","article-title":"An exploratory factor analysis of the cognitive functioning of first-year bachelor students with dyslexia","volume":"64","author":"Callens","year":"2014","journal-title":"Annals of Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1398","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797612473122","article-title":"Different patterns, but equivalent predictors, of growth in reading in consistent and inconsistent orthographies","volume":"24","author":"Caravolas","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797611434536","article-title":"Common patterns of prediction of literacy development in different alphabetic orthographies","volume":"23","author":"Caravolas","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1007\/s11881-021-00226-0","article-title":"Orthographic depth and developmental dyslexia: A meta-analytic study","volume":"71","author":"Carioti","year":"2021","journal-title":"Annals of Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awg217","article-title":"Visual magnocellular deficits in dyslexia","volume":"126","author":"Chase","year":"2003","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Corsi, P. 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