{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T12:34:53Z","timestamp":1787056493091,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,11]],"date-time":"2025-07-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1752192000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Movimiento Feminista Manuela Ramos"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study introduces and validates a novel instrument to measure aggressive gender backlash (AGB), a distinct and underexplored dimension of gender backlash (GB) within intimate partner relationships. Based on the General Aggression Model, a multidimensional scale was developed and tested using data from 513 Peruvian female microentrepreneurs. Results demonstrate solid evidence of reliability, discriminant validity, and predictive validity across five dimensions: hostility, the withdrawal of support, sabotage\/coercion, gender stereotyping, and masculine victimization. The findings reveal that AGB is more prevalent than intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW) and often precedes it. AGB encompasses covert, non-violent behaviors that aim to resist female empowerment, such as emotional sabotage, manipulation, and disqualification, often normalized within relationships. This construct is significantly associated with lower levels of empowerment, increased subordination, emotional morbidity, and decreased work productivity. This study redefines GB as an interpersonal process measurable at the individual level and provides the first validated tool for its assessment. By conceptualizing AGB as a persistent, harmful, and functionally equivalent mechanism to IPVAW, though not necessarily physically violent, this research fills a key gap in gender violence literature. It offers practical implications for early detection and prevention strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs15070941","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,11]],"date-time":"2025-07-11T15:19:31Z","timestamp":1752247171000},"page":"941","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["The Aggressive Gender Backlash in Intimate Partner Relationships: A Theoretical Framework and Initial Measurement"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3107-1157","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aristides A.","family":"Vara-Horna","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Administrative Sciences and Human Resources, San Mart\u00edn de Porres University, Lima 15009, Peru"},{"name":"Faculty of Psychology, Pontifical Catholic University of Peru, Lima 15088, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8540-241X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Noelia","family":"Rodr\u00edguez-Espartal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Psychology, Pontifical Catholic University of Peru, Lima 15088, Peru"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2017.03.034","article-title":"The general aggression model","volume":"19","author":"Allen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Psychology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1177\/1369148120947958","article-title":"Conceptualizing backlash politics: Introduction to a special issue on backlash politics in comparison","volume":"22","author":"Alter","year":"2020","journal-title":"British Journal of Politics and International Relations"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1111\/josi.12275","article-title":"Media violence and the general aggression model","volume":"74","author":"Anderson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Social Issues"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/00220388.2020.1762859","article-title":"Theoretical underpinnings and meta-analysis of the effects of cash transfers on intimate partner violence in low-and middle-income countries","volume":"57","author":"Baranov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Development Studies"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Berkowitz, L. 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