{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T05:13:24Z","timestamp":1790313204212,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":58,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]],"date-time":"2025-09-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1758153600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by cognitive and behavioural impairments. This study aimed to identify cognitive patterns associated with ADHD in a sample of 719 children and adolescents (363 with ADHD and 356 controls) assessed using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children\u2014Fourth Edition (WISC-IV). Compared to controls, the clinical group exhibited significantly lower scores in the Working Memory Index (WMI), Processing Speed Index (PSI), and Cognitive Proficiency Index (CPI). No significant group differences were found in Verbal Comprehension (VCI) or Perceptual Reasoning (PRI) after controlling for age and sex. Factorial MANOVA results revealed that WMI, PSI, and CPI deficits remained stable across age groups and were more pronounced in males. Females with ADHD outperformed males in PSI. A binary logistic regression model including WISC-IV core indices classified VCI, PRI, WMI, and PSI with a Nagelkerke R2 of 0.44 as significant predictors of group membership, indicating that lower scores in WMI and PSI, and higher scores in VCI and PRI, increased the likelihood of ADHD classification. These findings reinforce the use of the WISC-IV as a complementary tool in the cognitive characterisation and clinical assessment of ADHD in youth.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs15091279","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]],"date-time":"2025-09-18T14:45:46Z","timestamp":1758206746000},"page":"1279","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Cognitive Profiling of Children and Adolescents with ADHD Using the WISC-IV"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-6023-1327","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Megan","family":"Rosales-G\u00f3mez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Developmental Psychology and Didactics, Faculty of Education, University of Alicante, 03690 Alicante, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5966-9604","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ignasi","family":"Navarro-Soria","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Developmental Psychology and Didactics, Faculty of Education, University of Alicante, 03690 Alicante, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9994-695X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manuel","family":"Torrecillas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Developmental Psychology and Didactics, Faculty of Education, University of Alicante, 03690 Alicante, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3928-2629","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda Eugenia","family":"L\u00f3pez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Experimental Psychology, Cognitive Processes and Speech Therapy, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Centre for Cognitive and Computational Neuroscience, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1174-0314","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Beatriz","family":"Delgado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Developmental Psychology and Didactics, Faculty of Education, University of Alicante, 03690 Alicante, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"467","article-title":"Science of medicine ADHD diagnostic trends: Increased recognition or overdiagnosis?","volume":"119","author":"Abdelnour","year":"2022","journal-title":"Missouri Medicine"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Maruish, M. E. (1999). The child behavior checklist and related instruments. The use of psychological testing for treatment planning and outcomes assessment, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1555","DOI":"10.1002\/mpr.1555","article-title":"The structure of adult ADHD","volume":"26","author":"Adler","year":"2017","journal-title":"International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Allely, C. S. (2014). The association of ADHD symptoms to self-harm behaviours: A systematic PRISMA review. BMC Psychiatry, 14, (1).","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-244X-14-133"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, American Psychiatric Association. [5th ed.].","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.books.9780890425787"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"860","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2023.07.071","article-title":"The global prevalence of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: An umbrella review of meta-analyses","volume":"339","author":"Ayano","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Affective Disorders"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Barkley, E. A. (2025, February 24). Sample chapter: Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, fourth edition: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment, Available online: www.guilford.com\/p\/barkley2."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3020","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-018-0202-6","article-title":"Distinct brain structure and behavior related to ADHD and conduct disorder traits","volume":"25","author":"Bayard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Molecular Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.76.5.801","article-title":"Girls with attention deficit disorder: A silent minority? A report on behavioral and cognitive characteristics","volume":"76","author":"Berry","year":"1985","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2022.104180","article-title":"A rapid systematic review of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and high order writing: Current findings and implications for intervention","volume":"123","author":"Cheng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Research in Developmental Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"3","article-title":"Perspectives on developmental psychopathology","volume":"Vol. 1","author":"Cicchetti","year":"1995","journal-title":"Developmental psychopathology: Theory and method"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1017\/S0954579400004673","article-title":"Development and self-regulatory structures of the mind","volume":"6","author":"Cicchetti","year":"1994","journal-title":"Development and Psychopathology"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Cohen, J. (1969). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Conners, C. K. (2008). Conners 3\u2014Parent and teacher surveys, long form, Multi-Health System. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1080\/15374416.2017.1417860","article-title":"Prevalence of parent-reported ADHD diagnosis and associated treatment among U.S. children and adolescents, 2016","volume":"47","author":"Danielson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2793","article-title":"The neuroscience of human intelligence differences","volume":"11","author":"Deary","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature Reviews Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Demetriou, A., Spanoudis, G., and Papadopoulos, T. C. (2024). The typical and atypical developing mind: A common model, Development and Psychopathology.","DOI":"10.31234\/osf.io\/3rgmc"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-113011-143750","article-title":"Executive functions","volume":"Vol. 64","author":"Diamond","year":"2013","journal-title":"Annual review of psychology"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1747","DOI":"10.1177\/10870547221099963","article-title":"Is processing speed (gs) related to hyperactivity (as a narrow cognitive area of gps): A dimensional approach to heterogeneity of clinical and wisc-iv cognitive profiles in ADHD From RDoC\/HiTOP perspective","volume":"26","author":"Bodur","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Attention Disorders"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DuPaul, G. J., Power, T. J., Anastopoulos, A. D., and Reid, R. (1998). ADHD rating scale\u2014IV: Checklists, norms, and clinical interpretation, The Guilford Press.","DOI":"10.1037\/t00680-000"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"DuPaul, G. J., Power, T. J., Anastopoulos, A. D., and Reid, R. (2016). ADHD rating scale-5 for children and adolescents: Checklists, norms, and clinical interpretation, The Guilford Press.","DOI":"10.1037\/t05638-000"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1007\/s40596-019-01127-6","article-title":"Unconscious bias and the diagnosis of disruptive behavior disorders and ADHD in African american and hispanic youth","volume":"Vol. 44","author":"Fadus","year":"2020","journal-title":"Academic psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2021.01.022","article-title":"The world federation of ADHD international consensus statement: 208 evidence-based conclusions about the disorder","volume":"128","author":"Faraone","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1080\/21683603.2018.1474820","article-title":"Structural validity of the Spanish Wechsler intelligence scale for children\u2013Fourth edition in a large sample of Spanish children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"7","author":"Watkins","year":"2019","journal-title":"International Journal of School and Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"157","article-title":"Detecci\u00f3n de perfiles cognitivos mediante WISC-IV en ni\u00f1os diagnosticados de TDAH: \u00bfExisten diferencias entre subtipos?","volume":"20","year":"2015","journal-title":"Revista de Psicodidactica"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-017-0312-7","article-title":"Applied problem solving in children with ADHD: The mediating roles of working memory and mathematical calculation","volume":"46","author":"Friedman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01545.x","article-title":"The Strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A research note","volume":"38","author":"Goodman","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1331","DOI":"10.2147\/NDT.S245636","article-title":"A predictive model offor attention deficit hyperactivity disorder based on clinical assessment tools","volume":"16","author":"Han","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0447.2004.00384.x","article-title":"Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and suicide: A review of possible associations","volume":"110","author":"James","year":"2004","journal-title":"Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1097\/00004583-200102000-00009","article-title":"ADHD comorbidity findings from the mta study: Comparing comorbid subgroups","volume":"40","author":"Jensen","year":"2001","journal-title":"Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.1080\/09297049.2018.1556625","article-title":"Which components of processing speed are affected in ADHD subtypes?","volume":"25","author":"Kibby","year":"2019","journal-title":"Child Neuropsychology"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1037\/neu0000641","article-title":"Working memory and short-term memory deficits in ADHD: A bifactor modeling approach","volume":"34","author":"Kofler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropsychology"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1640","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054720923736","article-title":"Meta-analysis of sex differences in ADHD Symptoms and associated cognitive deficits","volume":"25","author":"Demers","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Attention Disorders"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054718756196","article-title":"Are parent- and teacher-reported executive function difficulties associated with parenting stress for children diagnosed with ADHD?","volume":"25","author":"McLuckie","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Attention Disorders"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijchp.2016.07.003","article-title":"Psychometric properties of the conners-3 and conners early childhood indexes in a Spanish school population","volume":"17","author":"Vera","year":"2017","journal-title":"International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1152","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhab276","article-title":"Structural brain changes and associated symptoms of ADHD subtypes in children","volume":"32","author":"Mu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cerebral Cortex"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"834","DOI":"10.26719\/emhj.20.032","article-title":"Differences in identification of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children between teachers and parents","volume":"26","author":"Nafi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.21134\/rpcna.2020.07.1.3","article-title":"Memoria de trabajo y velocidad de procesamiento evaluado mediante WISC-IV como claves en la evaluaci\u00f3n del TDAH","volume":"7","author":"Fenollar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Revista de Psicologia Clinica Con Ninos y Adolescentes"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Navarro-Soria, I., Rico-Juan, J. R., Ju\u00e1rez-Ruiz de Mier, R., and Lavigne-Cervan, R. (2024). Prediction of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder based on explainable artificial intelligence. Applied Neuropsychology: Child.","DOI":"10.21203\/rs.3.rs-3992393\/v1"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"163","article-title":"Tratamiento cognitivo-conductual de un ni\u00f1o con TDAH no especificado","volume":"2","year":"2015","journal-title":"Revista de Psicolog\u00eda Cl\u00ednica con Ni\u00f1os y Adolescentes"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1093\/arclin\/acx055","article-title":"The neurocognitive profile of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: A review of meta-analyses","volume":"33","author":"Pievsky","year":"2018","journal-title":"Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology: The Official Journal of the National Academy of Neuropsychologists"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(19)33004-1","article-title":"Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"395","author":"Posner","year":"2020","journal-title":"The Lancet"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.1080\/13854046.2019.1604998","article-title":"A meta-analysis on verbal working memory in children and adolescents with ADHD","volume":"34","author":"Ramos","year":"2019","journal-title":"The Clinical Neuropsychologist"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1017\/S1355617713001100","article-title":"Executive function in children with attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: The NIH EXAMINER battery","volume":"20","author":"Schreiber","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"393","article-title":"ADHD Rating Scale-IV in a sample of Spanish schoolchidren: Normative data and internal consistency for teachers and parents","volume":"45","author":"Servera","year":"2007","journal-title":"Revista de Neurolog\u00eda"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.4103\/0366-6999.200541","article-title":"Executive function training for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder","volume":"130","author":"Shuai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chinese Medical Journal"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054718804347","article-title":"The relationship between executive function deficits and DSM-5-Defined ADHD symptoms","volume":"24","author":"Silverstein","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Attention Disorders"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Skarphedinsson, G., Jarbin, H., Andersson, M., and Ivarsson, T. (2021). Diagnostic efficiency and validity of the DSM-oriented Child behavior checklist and youth self-report scales in a clinical sample of Swedish youth. PLoS ONE, 16, (7).","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0254953"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.149.6.760","article-title":"Conduct disorder and hyperactivity: I. Separation of hyperactivity and antisocial conduct in British child psychiatric patients","volume":"149","author":"Taylor","year":"1986","journal-title":"The British Journal of Psychiatry: The Journal of Mental Science"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1177\/1087054711428806","article-title":"WISC-IV profiles are associated with differences in symptomatology and outcome in children with ADHD","volume":"17","author":"Thaler","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Attention Disorders"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1571","DOI":"10.1177\/10870547231190494","article-title":"Do ASD and ADHD have distinct executive function deficits? A systematic review and meta-analysis of direct comparison studies","volume":"27","author":"Townes","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Attention Disorders"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nrleng.2017.05.007","article-title":"Validation of a spanish-language version of the ADHD rating scale IV in a spanish sample","volume":"34","author":"Soutullo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurolog\u00eda (English Edition)"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wechsler, D. (2003). Wechsler intelligence scale for children, fourth edition (WISC-IV) [Database record], APA PsycTests.","DOI":"10.1037\/t15174-000"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wechsler, D. (2005). Wechsler intelligence scale for children-four edition (WISC-IV) (Spanish version), TEA Ediciones.","DOI":"10.53841\/bpstest.2004.wisc4"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1177\/00222194030360040801","article-title":"The internal restlessness scale: Performance of college students with and without ADHD","volume":"36","author":"Weyandt","year":"2003","journal-title":"Journal of Learning Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1336","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2005.02.006","article-title":"Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder: A meta-analytic review","volume":"57","author":"Willcutt","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biological Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Young, S., Adamo, N., \u00c1sgeirsd\u00f3ttir, B. B., Branney, P., Beckett, M., Colley, W., Cubbin, S., Deeley, Q., Farrag, E., Gudjonsson, G., Hill, P., Hollingdale, J., Kilic, O., Lloyd, T., Mason, P., Paliokosta, E., Perecherla, S., Sedgwick, J., Skirrow, C., and Woodhouse, E. (2020). Females with ADHD: An expert consensus statement taking a lifespan approach providing guidance for the identification and treatment of attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder in girls and women. BMC Psychiatry, 20, (1).","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-020-02707-9"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, F., Zhu, X., Bi, X., Kuang, D., Liu, B., Zhou, J., Yang, Y., and Ren, Y. (2023). Comparative effectiveness of various physical exercise interventions on executive functions and related symptoms in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. Frontiers in Public Health, 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpubh.2023.1133727"}],"container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/15\/9\/1279\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:48:15Z","timestamp":1760035695000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/15\/9\/1279"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]]},"references-count":58,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["bs15091279"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bs15091279","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-328X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-328X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,18]]}}}