{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T14:38:28Z","timestamp":1789051108820,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":98,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]],"date-time":"2025-10-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761868800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100015996","name":"University of South-Eastern Norway","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100015996","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>General self-efficacy is identified as a modifiable determinant of adolescent mental health and well-being. This study sought to better understand how conditions in different environments of adolescents\u2019 lives and socio-demographic factors are associated with adolescents\u2019 general self-efficacy. We conducted a hierarchical multi-variable linear regression analysis based on survey data from 2021 of a large population-based sample of Norwegian adolescents (n = 15,040). We found that better Relation to peers (\u03b2 = 0.20, 95% CI [0.18; 0.22]) and Academic\/social relation to teachers (\u03b2 = 0.13, 95% CI [0.11; 0.14]), Perceived neighbourhood safety (\u03b2 = 0.08, 95% CI [0.06; 0.10]), and Participation in physical activities (\u03b2 = 0.07, 95% CI [0.06; 0.09]) had medium to small positive associations with adolescents\u2019 general self-efficacy, whilst Parental involvement, Participation in organized music\/cultural leisure activities, and Perceived access to neighbourhood leisure arenas had negligible associations with general self-efficacy. Boys reported a stronger general self-efficacy than girls (\u03b2 = \u22120.17, 95% CI [\u22120.19; \u22120.16]) and Age and Socio-economic status had small positive associations with general self-efficacy (\u03b2 = 0.08, 95% CI [0.07; 0.10] and 0.04, 95% CI [0.02; 0.06], respectively). We found some small moderation effects by socio-demographic factors in the associations between environmental factors and general self-efficacy. Our findings suggest that general self-efficacy-promoting initiatives that target adolescents apply a multi-sectorial and multi-level approach and pay particular attention to gender differences. A focus on facilitating adolescents\u2019 experiences of mastery and access to relevant successful role models and supportive behaviour by adults and peers in the various contexts seems to be of particular importance.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs15111484","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,3]],"date-time":"2025-11-03T13:47:58Z","timestamp":1762177678000},"page":"1484","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Environmental and Socio-Demographic Influences on General Self-Efficacy in Norwegian Adolescents"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5500-4522","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Catherine A. N.","family":"Lorentzen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health, Social, and Welfare Studies, University of South-Eastern Norway, Pb 4, 3199 Borre, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-5526-0858","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Asle","family":"Bentsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Competence Centre on Alcohol and Drugs\u2014Region South (KORUS s\u00f8r), Pb 1, Sentrum, 3701 Skien, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1238-1675","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisabeth","family":"Gull\u00f8y","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health, Social, and Welfare Studies, University of South-Eastern Norway, Pb 4, 3199 Borre, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4029-4344","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kjell Ivar","family":"\u00d8verg\u00e5rd","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Health, Social, and Welfare Studies, University of South-Eastern Norway, Pb 4, 3199 Borre, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Aase, K., Gull\u00f8y, E., Lorentzen, C., Bentsen, A., Kristiansen, R., Eik-\u00c5sheim, K., Riiser, E., Haraldsen, E., and Momrak, E. (2025, October 26). Ung i Vestfold og Telemark 2021, Available online: https:\/\/korus.no\/ung-i-vestfold-og-telemark-2021-pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.6018\/analesps.402111","article-title":"Moderating effects of hardiness and optimism on negative life events and coping self-efficacy in first-year undergraduate students","volume":"36","author":"Abbasi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anales de Psicolog\u00eda\/Annals of Psychology"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Payne, G., and Harrison, E. (2020). Gender. Social divisions: Inequality and diversity in Britain, Policy Press.","DOI":"10.56687\/9781447355151"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2022.102205","article-title":"Drop-out from team sport among adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies","volume":"61","author":"Back","year":"2022","journal-title":"Psychology of Sport and Exercise"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baker, D. (2014). The schooled society: The educational transformation of global culture, Stanford University Press.","DOI":"10.1515\/9780804790482"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bakken, A., Fr\u00f8yland, L. R., and Sletten, M. A. (2025, October 26). Sosiale forskjeller i unges liv. Hva sier Ungdata-unders\u00f8kelsene?, Available online: https:\/\/oda.oslomet.no\/oda-xmlui\/bitstream\/handle\/20.500.12199\/5103\/Sosiale-forskjeller-i-unges-liv-NOVA-Rapport-3-2016-18-april-.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.","DOI":"10.7577\/nova\/rapporter\/2016\/3"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"46","article-title":"Generasjon prestasjon? Ungdoms opplevelse av press og stress","volume":"18","author":"Bakken","year":"2018","journal-title":"Tidsskrift for Ungdomsforskning. Norwegian Journal of Youth Research"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Bakken, A., and Strandbu, \u00c5. (2023). Idrettsdeltakelse blant ungdom\u2014F\u00f8r, under og etter koronapandemien, NOVA."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1207\/s15326985ep2802_3","article-title":"Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning","volume":"28","author":"Bandura","year":"1993","journal-title":"Educational Psychologist"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"154","article-title":"Social cognitive theory of personality","volume":"Vol. 2","author":"Pervin","year":"1999","journal-title":"Handbook of personality"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.4274\/jpr.18894","article-title":"Relationship between adolescents\u2019 health promoting lifestyle behaviors and self-efficacy","volume":"3","author":"Binay","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Pediatric Research"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bonsaksen, T., Grimholt, T. K., Skogstad, L., Lerdal, A., Ekeberg, \u00d8., Heir, T., and Schou-Bredal, I. (2018). Self-diagnosed depression in the Norwegian general population\u2013associations with neuroticism, extraversion, optimism, and general self-efficacy. BMC Public Health, 18, (1).","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-018-5990-8"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Bozog\u00e1\u0148ov\u00e1, M. (2016). Gender and gender roles in the context of the perceived safety. Soci\u00e1ln\u00ed Procesy a Osobnost 2015, 49\u201355."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Brattbakk, I., and Andersen, B. (2017). Oppvekststedets betydning for barn og unge. Nabolaget som ressurs og utfordring, Arbeidsforskningsinstituttet."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1007\/s10964-016-0608-x","article-title":"The role of perceived stress and self-efficacy in young people\u2019s life satisfaction: A longitudinal study","volume":"46","author":"Burger","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Youth and Adolescence"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1177\/0044118X231163242","article-title":"Poverty stifles ambition: The role of self-efficacy and perceived social fairness in the future orientation of adolescents from financially disadvantaged families","volume":"56","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Youth & Society"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Choi, A. (2018). Emotional well-being of children and adolescents: Recent trends and relevant factors, OECD. Available online: https:\/\/www.oecd-ilibrary.org\/education\/emotional-well-being-of-children-and-adolescents_41576fb2-en."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1177\/1747954119858458","article-title":"The roles of coaches, peers, and parents in athletes\u2019 basic psychological needs: A mixed-studies review","volume":"14","author":"Chu","year":"2019","journal-title":"International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1007\/s11205-015-0861-5","article-title":"The determinants of life satisfaction among adolescents: The role of metacognitive awareness and self-efficacy","volume":"125","author":"Cikrikci","year":"2016","journal-title":"Social Indicators Research"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01538683","article-title":"Current contradictions in adolescent theory","volume":"7","author":"Coleman","year":"1978","journal-title":"Journal of Youth and Adolescence"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"1","article-title":"The effect of resistance training interventions on \u2018the self\u2019in youth: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"5","author":"Collins","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sports Medicine-Open"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1080\/21501378.2019.1711037","article-title":"Addressing missing data in quantitative counseling research","volume":"12","author":"Cook","year":"2021","journal-title":"Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2007.11.024","article-title":"Researching health inequalities in adolescents: The development of the Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HBSC) family affluence scale","volume":"66","author":"Currie","year":"2008","journal-title":"Social Science & Medicine"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1186\/1475-9276-7-27","article-title":"Social inequalities in mental health in Norway: Possible explanatory factors","volume":"7","author":"Dalgard","year":"2008","journal-title":"International Journal for Equity in Health"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1007\/s10464-009-9250-z","article-title":"Adolescent place attachment, social capital, and perceived safety: A comparison of 13 countries","volume":"44","author":"Dallago","year":"2009","journal-title":"American Journal of Community Psychology"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.18261\/issn.2464-4161-2019-02-08","article-title":"Towards enhancing research on adolescent positive mental health","volume":"4","author":"Eriksson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nordisk V\u00e4lf\u00e4rdsforskning|Nordic Welfare Research"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1057\/s41285-018-0065-6","article-title":"Different uses of Bronfenbrenner\u2019s ecological theory in public mental health research: What is their value for guiding public mental health policy and practice?","volume":"16","author":"Eriksson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Social Theory & Health"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics, Sage Publications Limited."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1007\/s10826-010-9363-x","article-title":"Perceived parenting, self-esteem, and general self-efficacy of Iranian American adolescents","volume":"19","author":"Frank","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Child and Family Studies"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Fr\u00f8yland, L. R. (2017). Ungdata\u2013lokale ungdomsunders\u00f8kelser. Dokumentasjon av variablene i sp\u00f8rreskjemaet, NOVA. Available online: https:\/\/www.ungdata.no\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/Ungdata-Dokumentasjonsrapport-2010-2019-PDF.pdf."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fu, W., Li, Y., Liu, Y., Li, D., Wang, G., Liu, Y., Zhang, T., and Zheng, Y. (2023). The influence of different physical exercise amounts on learning burnout in adolescents: The mediating effect of self-efficacy. Frontiers in Psychology, 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1089570"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1007\/s10935-013-0320-5","article-title":"Neighbourhood perceptions and sense of coherence in adolescence","volume":"34","author":"Moreno","year":"2013","journal-title":"The Journal of Primary Prevention"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Giddens, A. (1991). Modernity and self-identity. Self and society in the late modern age, Policy Press."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Government of Norway, T. (2025, October 26). The government\u2019s handling of the COVID-19 pandemic. Report from the Corona commission (NOU 2021:6, Myndighetenes h\u00e5ndtering av koronapandemien. Rapport fra Koronakommisjonen), Available online: https:\/\/www.regjeringen.no\/contentassets\/5d388acc92064389b2a4e1a449c5865e\/no\/pdfs\/nou202120210006000dddpdfs.pdf."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grasaas, E., Ostojic, S., Sandbakk, \u00d8., Bj\u00f8rnsen, G., Sylta, \u00d8., H\u00f8gli Major, D., and Jahre, H. (2024). The relationship between perceived school stress and satisfaction with life among Norwegian school-based adolescents and the moderating role of perceived teacher care: A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 24, (1).","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-024-20246-w"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grasaas, E., Rohde, G., Haraldstad, K., Helseth, S., Sm\u00e5stuen, M. C., Skarstein, S., and Mikkelsen, H. T. (2023). Sleep duration in schooldays is associated with health-related quality of life in Norwegian adolescents: A cross-sectional study. BMC Pediatrics, 23, (1).","DOI":"10.1186\/s12887-023-04306-5"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-019-7115-4","article-title":"Associations between self-efficacy, bullying and health-related quality of life in a school sample of adolescents: A cross-sectional study","volume":"19","author":"Haraldstad","year":"2019","journal-title":"BMC Public Health"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Hayes, A. (2022). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach, The Guilford Press. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1207\/s15374424jccp2504_9","article-title":"Generalized self-efficacy: Family and adjustment correlates","volume":"25","author":"Hoeltje","year":"1996","journal-title":"Journal of Clinical Child Psychology"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"587","article-title":"Self-efficacy and emotional intelligence among college youth with respect to family type and gender","volume":"8","author":"Honmore","year":"2017","journal-title":"Indian Journal of Positive Psychology"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mittelmark, M. B., Bauer, G. F., Lenneke, V., Pelikan, J. M., Sagy, S., Eriksson, M., Lindstr\u00f8m, B., and Magistretti, C. M. (2022). Generalized resistance resources in the salutogenic model of health. The handbook of salutogenesis, Springer Open.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-79515-3_13"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1108\/09654280910970901","article-title":"Mental health promotion in schools by strengthening self--efficacy","volume":"109","author":"Jerusalem","year":"2009","journal-title":"Health Education"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2186","DOI":"10.1007\/s12144-023-04450-2","article-title":"Indulgent parenting, self-control, self-efficacy, and adolescents\u2019 fear of missing out","volume":"43","author":"Jiao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Current Psychology"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kleppang, A. L., Steigen, A. M., and Finbr\u00e5ten, H. S. (2023). Explaining variance in self-efficacy among adolescents: The association between mastery experiences, social support, and self-efficacy. BMC Public Health, 23, (1).","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-023-16603-w"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"KORUS (2024, October 27). The regional drug and alcohol competence centers, Available online: https:\/\/korus.no."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e057654","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2021-057654","article-title":"Divergent decennial trends in mental health according to age reveal poorer mental health for young people: Repeated cross-sectional population-based surveys from the HUNT Study, Norway","volume":"12","author":"Krokstad","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3373","DOI":"10.2147\/PRBM.S406702","article-title":"The role of emotion regulation for general self-efficacy in adolescents assessed through both neurophysiological and self-reported measures","volume":"16","author":"Lande","year":"2023","journal-title":"Psychology Research and Behavior Management"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Loton, D. J., and Waters, L. E. (2017). The mediating effect of self-efficacy in the connections between strength-based parenting, happiness and psychological distress in teens. Frontiers in Psychology, 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.01707"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.18261\/issn.2464-4161-2019-02-07","article-title":"Trends in perceived school stress among adolescents in five Nordic countries 2002\u20132014","volume":"4","author":"Eriksson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nordisk v\u00e4lf\u00e4rdsforskning|Nordic Welfare Research"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1007\/s12144-016-9551-y","article-title":"The psychometric properties of the Swedish version of the general self-efficacy scale: A Rasch analysis based on adolescent data","volume":"37","author":"Hagquist","year":"2018","journal-title":"Current Psychology"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"767","article-title":"Jenters stumme raseri\u2013i diagnosenes tidsalder","volume":"51","year":"2014","journal-title":"Tidsskrift for Norsk Psykologforening"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.3200\/JRLP.139.5.439-457","article-title":"The general self-efficacy scale: Multicultural validation studies","volume":"139","author":"Luszczynska","year":"2005","journal-title":"The Journal of Psychology"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1080\/17439760600619609","article-title":"Hardiness: The courage to grow from stresses","volume":"1","author":"Maddi","year":"2006","journal-title":"The Journal of Positive Psychology"},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"409","article-title":"The influence of perceived social support on academic engagement among adolescents: The mediating role of self-efficacy","volume":"40","author":"Jurado","year":"2024","journal-title":"Anales de Psicolog\u00eda\/Annals of Psychology"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1007\/s00038-013-0458-1","article-title":"Changes in family socio-economic status as predictors of self-efficacy in 13-year-old Polish adolescents","volume":"59","author":"Mazur","year":"2014","journal-title":"International Journal of Public Health"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adolescence.2018.12.005","article-title":"Evaluating school and peer protective factors in the effects of interparental conflict on adolescent threat appraisals and self-efficacy","volume":"71","author":"McCauley","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Adolescence"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1186\/s12955-022-02035-4","article-title":"Changes in health-related quality of life in adolescents and the impact of gender and selected variables: A two-year longitudinal study","volume":"20","author":"Mikkelsen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Health and Quality of Life Outcomes"},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"28","article-title":"Role of family environment in developing self efficacy of adolescents","volume":"1","author":"Mishra","year":"2014","journal-title":"Integrated Journal of Social Sciences"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moore, B., Dudley, D., and Woodcock, S. (2023). The Effects of a martial arts-based intervention on secondary school students\u2019 Self-Efficacy: A randomised controlled trial. Philosophies, 8, (3).","DOI":"10.3390\/philosophies8030043"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1007\/s10802-023-01031-6","article-title":"Explaining the female preponderance in adolescent depression\u2014A four-wave cohort study","volume":"51","author":"Morken","year":"2023","journal-title":"Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Myhr, A., Anthun, K. S., Lillefjell, M., and Sund, E. R. (2020). Trends in socioeconomic inequalities in Norwegian adolescents\u2019 mental health from 2014 to 2018: A repeated cross-sectional study. Frontiers in Psychology, 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.01472"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1007\/s00406-021-01338-9","article-title":"The impact of physical fitness on resilience to modern life stress and the mediating role of general self-efficacy","volume":"272","author":"Neumann","year":"2022","journal-title":"European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"61","article-title":"Neighborhood variation in early adult educational outcomes: The case of Norway","volume":"150","author":"Nordvik","year":"2019","journal-title":"Die Erde. Journal of the Geographical Society of Berlign"},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"NOVA (2024, October 27). About ungdata, Available online: https:\/\/www.ungdata.no\/english\/."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"NOVA (2024, October 27). The norwegian social research institute, Available online: https:\/\/www.oslomet.no\/en\/about\/nova."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"NOVA (2024, October 27). Ungdata, data privacy and research ethics, Available online: https:\/\/www.ungdata.no\/personvern."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Otto, C., Haller, A.-C., Klasen, F., H\u00f6lling, H., Bullinger, M., Ravens-Sieberer, U., and Group, B. S. (2017). Risk and protective factors of health-related quality of life in children and adolescents: Results of the longitudinal BELLA study. PLoS ONE, 12, (12).","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0190363"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1080\/14038190600565093","article-title":"Muscle pain, physical activity, self-efficacy and relaxation ability in adolescents","volume":"8","author":"Gould","year":"2006","journal-title":"Advances in Physiotherapy"},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"1","article-title":"Current directions in self-efficacy research","volume":"10","author":"Pajares","year":"1997","journal-title":"Advances in Motivation and Achievement"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Potrebny, T., Wiium, N., Haugstvedt, A., Sollesnes, R., Torsheim, T., Wold, B., and Thuen, F. (2019). Health complaints among adolescents in Norway: A twenty-year perspective on trends. PLoS ONE, 14, (1).","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0210509"},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Putnam, R. D. (2016). Our kids: The American dream in crisis, Simon and Schuster."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1177\/0031512517697069","article-title":"Effects of youth participation in extra-curricular sport programs on perceived self-efficacy: A multilevel analysis","volume":"124","author":"Reverdito","year":"2017","journal-title":"Perceptual and Motor Skills"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riger, S. (2000). Transforming psychology: Gender in theory and practice, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195074666.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"R\u00f8ysamb, E., Schwarzer, R., and Jerusalem, M. (2024, July 04). Norwegian version of the general perceived self-efficacy scale, Available online: https:\/\/userpage.fu-berlin.de\/~health\/norway.htm."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ryan, R., and Deci, E. (2017). Self-determination theory. Basic psychological needs in motivation, development and wellness, The Guilford Press.","DOI":"10.1521\/978.14625\/28806"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1521\/jscp.21.3.309.22531","article-title":"Social support, self-efficacy, and depressive symptoms: An integrative model","volume":"21","author":"Saltzman","year":"2002","journal-title":"Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1027\/\/1015-5759.18.3.242","article-title":"Is general self-efficacy a universal construct? Psychometric findings from 25 countries","volume":"18","author":"Scholz","year":"2002","journal-title":"European Journal of Psychological Assessment"},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Schwarzer, R. (2025, October 26). General perceived self-efficacy in 14 cultures, Available online: http:\/\/userpage.fu-berlin.de\/~health\/world14.htm."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"Schwarzer, R., and Jerusalem, M. (2024, July 04). Generalized self-efficacy scale, Available online: https:\/\/www.religiousforums.com\/data\/attachment-files\/2014\/12\/22334_285ebbd019ec89856493442b1b6f9154.pdf."},{"key":"ref_80","unstructured":"Schwarzer, R., and Scholz, U. (, January August). Cross-cultural assessment of coping resources: The general perceived self-efficacy scale. First Asian Congress of Health Psychology: Health Psychology and Culture, Tokyo, Japan."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1552-3934.2012.02116.x","article-title":"Neighborhood, parenting, and individual qualities related to adolescent self--efficacy in immigrant families","volume":"40","author":"Seegan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1111\/bjc.12333","article-title":"Global prevalence of depression and elevated depressive symptoms among adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"61","author":"Shorey","year":"2022","journal-title":"British Journal of Clinical Psychology"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.18261\/issn.1504-291X-2021-01-01","article-title":"Foreldrerestriksjoner blant minoritetsungdom: Omfang og m\u00f8nstre i og utenfor skolen","volume":"62","author":"Smette","year":"2021","journal-title":"Tidsskrift for Samfunnsforskning"},{"key":"ref_84","unstructured":"SSB (2024, October 12). Available online: https:\/\/www.ssb.no\/arbeid-og-lonn\/sysselsetting\/statistikk\/tilknytning-til-arbeid-utdanning-og-velferdsordninger\/artikler\/vestfold-og-telemark-har-den-hoyeste-andelen-unge-som-faller-utenfor."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Steigen, A. M., Finbr\u00e5ten, H. S., and Kleppang, A. L. (2022). Using Rasch analysis to assess the psychometric properties of a five-item version of the General Self-Efficacy Scale in adolescents. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19, (5).","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19053082"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.47.1.6","article-title":"Establishing and maintaining healthy environments: Toward a social ecology of health promotion","volume":"47","author":"Stokols","year":"1992","journal-title":"American Psychologist"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1080\/08964280009595760","article-title":"Social ecology and behavioral medicine: Implications for training, practice, and policy","volume":"26","author":"Stokols","year":"2000","journal-title":"Behavioral Medicine"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1080\/0145935X.2011.553580","article-title":"Self-efficacy in incarcerated adolescents: The role of family and social supports","volume":"32","author":"Tangeman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Child & Youth Services"},{"key":"ref_89","unstructured":"The Norwegian Agency for Shared Services in Education and Research (2025, July 30). Research data, Available online: https:\/\/sikt.no\/en\/omrade\/research-data."},{"key":"ref_90","first-page":"452327","article-title":"Self-efficacy as a positive youth development construct: A conceptual review","volume":"2012","author":"Tsang","year":"2012","journal-title":"The Scientific World Journal"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1367.020","article-title":"The protective role of exercise on stress system dysregulation and comorbidities","volume":"1083","author":"Tsatsoulis","year":"2006","journal-title":"Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.1080\/00405841.2023.2226559","article-title":"Supporting self-efficacy development from primary school to the professions: A guide for educators","volume":"62","author":"Usher","year":"2023","journal-title":"Theory into Practice"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(21)01259-9","article-title":"Physical activity behaviours in adolescence: Current evidence and opportunities for intervention","volume":"398","author":"Ekelund","year":"2021","journal-title":"The Lancet"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1007\/s00038-010-0203-y","article-title":"Aspects of self differ among physically active and inactive youths","volume":"56","author":"Veselska","year":"2011","journal-title":"International Journal of Public Health"},{"key":"ref_95","unstructured":"von Tetzchner, S. (2012). Utviklingspsykologi, Gyldendal Akademisk. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"651","DOI":"10.1017\/thg.2013.25","article-title":"Self-efficacy is mainly genetic, not learned: A multiple-rater twin study on the causal structure of general self-efficacy in young people","volume":"16","author":"Waaktaar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Twin Research and Human Genetics"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpeds.2007.06.005","article-title":"The impact of maternal negative affectivity and general self-efficacy on breastfeeding: The Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study","volume":"152","author":"Ystrom","year":"2008","journal-title":"The Journal of Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, J., and Huo, Y. (2022). Chinese youths\u2019 physical activity and flourishing during COVID-19: The mediating role of meaning in life and self-efficacy. Frontiers in Psychology, 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.867599"}],"container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/15\/11\/1484\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,4]],"date-time":"2025-11-04T05:31:27Z","timestamp":1762234287000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/15\/11\/1484"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]]},"references-count":98,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["bs15111484"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bs15111484","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-328X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-328X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,31]]}}}