{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T17:04:52Z","timestamp":1763485492869,"version":"3.45.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1763424000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Using the Action\u2013Sentence Compatibility Effect (ACE) paradigm, this study investigated whether types of grammatical aspects and L2 proficiency influence embodied simulation during L2 sentence comprehension of English among Chinese learners. Participants judged the semantic plausibility of sentences in progressive or perfective aspect by performing directional actions (toward or away the body) that were either compatible or incompatible with the action direction described. Analysis of the reaction times (RTs) revealed a significant main effect of proficiency, with low-proficiency learners responding more slowly overall. Crucially, we observed a significant three-way interaction between aspect, action\u2013sentence consistency, and proficiency. Simple effects analyses revealed a qualitative reversal: advanced learners exhibited a significant ACE only for sentences in the progressive aspect, indicating grammatically guided simulation sensitive to ongoing actions, whereas we found no ACE for perfective sentences, consistent with their focus on event completion rather than on-going action processes. In contrast, low-proficiency learners showed a significant ACE for the perfective aspect, suggesting a reliance on lexically triggered simulation, while they showed no simulation effect for the progressive aspect due to shallow morphosyntactic processing and L1 transfer. These findings support a proficiency-dependent dual-pathway model of L2 embodiment: advanced learners engage in direct mapping from grammar to simulation, whereas low-proficiency learners rely on an indirect, lexically mediated route. In summary, our findings demonstrate that the embodiment of grammatical meaning in L2 acquisition is not automatic, but is developmentally modulated, evolving from a lexically dependent to grammar-dependent simulation as proficiency increases. Furthermore, these results call for future research to explore the pedagogical applications of grammar-focused embodied instruction and to examine this dual-pathway model across other linguistic structures and L2 populations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs15111581","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]],"date-time":"2025-11-18T16:49:51Z","timestamp":1763484591000},"page":"1581","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Embodied Simulation of L2 Grammatical Aspect: Proficiency-Dependent Evidence from the Action-Sentence Compatibility Effect"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Chunqiao","family":"Hu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"English Department, College of Foreign Languages, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9608-3159","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shifa","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"English Department, College of Foreign Languages, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-1593-6753","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yufeng","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"English Department, College of Foreign Languages, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1017\/S014271641700042X","article-title":"Grounded cognition: Comparing language \u00d7 space interactions in first language and second language","volume":"39","author":"Ahlberg","year":"2018","journal-title":"Applied Psycholinguistics"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"1198","article-title":"On-line interactions of context and grammatical aspect","volume":"32","author":"Anderson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Baker, L. 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