{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T16:15:14Z","timestamp":1785428114514,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":165,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]],"date-time":"2026-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1775001600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"COGDOP"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03mjtaj61","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bilingualism has increasingly been understood as a multidimensional and context-sensitive experience, prompting growing interest in how specific aspects of bilingual language use relate to cognition. We used Bayesian psychometric network analysis to examine how bilingual language practices, bicultural identity management, and cognition relate within the same system in a sample of 404 U.S.-born heritage Spanish\u2013English bilingual adults of Latin American descent. This approach conceptualizes bilingualism as a complex system, quantifies uncertainty in the estimated network structure, and identifies aspects of bilingual experience that serve as bridges to cognition and bicultural identity. The strongest bridges between domains were the edge between language mixing and attentional control and the edge between unintended language switching and bicultural harmony. These findings provide a more holistic and socially infused characterization of how bilingualism, biculturalism, and cognition interact in U.S. heritage speakers of Spanish.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs16040522","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,2]],"date-time":"2026-04-02T09:26:12Z","timestamp":1775121972000},"page":"522","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Bilingualism in Context: A Bayesian Psychometric Network Analysis of Language and Culture Among U.S. Heritage Spanish\u2013English Speakers of Latin American Descent"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8540-5212","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"William","family":"Rayo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA"},{"name":"School of Psychological Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4452-6269","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ivan","family":"Carbajal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychological Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"741","article-title":"Does integrating a code-switch during comprehension engage cognitive control?","volume":"46","author":"Adler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1124","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-37654-9","article-title":"The word order of languages predicts native speakers\u2019 working memory","volume":"9","author":"Amici","year":"2019","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-linguistics-011718-011820","article-title":"The advantages of bilingualism debate","volume":"5","author":"Antoniou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annual Review of Linguistics"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1085","DOI":"10.1214\/20-BA1249","article-title":"The median probability model and correlated variables","volume":"16","author":"Barbieri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bayesian Analysis"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Bates, E. 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