{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,10]],"date-time":"2026-10-10T02:06:33Z","timestamp":1791597993589,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":78,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1777507200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003986","name":"Jacobs Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003986","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/03tj32a09","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100023923","name":"Stanford King Center on Global Development","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100023923","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"CEMIC, CONICET and FONCYT research grants"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04czhsq43","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000923","name":"Australian Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["FT230100629"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FT230100629"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000923","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["FT230100629"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FT230100629"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05mmh0f86","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Stanford King Center Graduate Student Exploratory Research Grant, Stanford Graduate School of Education Dissertation Support Grant, and Center for Measurement Justice-NBME Dissertation Fellowship"},{"name":"Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council in Canada","award":["430-2022-00430"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["430-2022-00430"]}]},{"award":["430-2022-00430"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["430-2022-00430"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04j5jqy92","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Existing adult-report survey measures provide crucial information about children\u2019s executive function (EF) development across contexts, but lack cultural relevance and ecological validity. To address these limitations, we introduce the Executive Function from Observation and Reflection Tool (EFFORT), a publicly available, open-source item bank designed for cross-cultural adaptation that includes 32 parallel items for caregivers and teachers across six EF domains: sustained attention, response inhibition, interference suppression, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and planning\/organization. EFFORT additionally includes 10 assessor report items intended for use following a structured, standardized assessment session. This study presents the first validation of the tool within seven countries (Argentina, Australia, Bangladesh, Haiti, South Africa, Sri Lanka, United States) leveraging caregiver, teacher, and assessor observations of 1738 children (aged 3\u201311 years). Findings revealed acceptable fit for a six-factor structure for caregiver and teacher reports that were not empirically distinct, but yielded highly reliable composites. We further validated a 12-item short form for caregivers and teachers that demonstrated strong unidimensionality, gender invariance, and age-related increases. We demonstrated significant convergence of a short-form caregiver and teacher composite with the assessor-reported measures, as well as convergence of all three adult reports with direct assessments of children\u2019s EF skills. This new tool holds promise to advance the science of how children develop and apply EFs to accomplish everyday goals across different cultural settings and in understudied populations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs16050693","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T10:15:27Z","timestamp":1777630527000},"page":"693","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Executive Function from Observation and Reflection Tool (EFFORT): Validation of a Culturally Adaptable and Publicly Available Item Bank in Seven Countries"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7405-4608","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jelena","family":"Obradovi\u0107","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8878-9557","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ishita","family":"Ahmed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-5316-4353","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mateus","family":"Mazzaferro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4405-6554","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael J.","family":"Sulik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0896-1813","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dana C.","family":"McCoy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8076-8399","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sharon","family":"Wolf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2885-437X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Catherine E.","family":"Draper","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SAMRC Developmental Pathways for Health Research Unit, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7118-5386","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nikhit","family":"D\u2019Sa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Global Center for the Development of the Whole Child, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1258-3210","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Steven J.","family":"Howard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Education, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 2JD, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5939-4073","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sebasti\u00e1n","family":"Lipina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Educaci\u00f3n M\u00e9dica e Investigaci\u00f3n Cl\u00ednica \u201cNorberto Quirno\u201d (CEMIC), Unidad de Neurobiolog\u00eda Aplicada (UNA), Buenos Aires C1431FWO, Argentina"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-9680-6286","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kavindya","family":"Thennakoon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate School of Education, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8057-6725","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erfan","family":"Ghalibaf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"D\u00e9partement d\u2019Anatomie, Universit\u00e9 du Qu\u00e9bec \u00e0 Trois-Rivi\u00e8res, Trois-Rivi\u00e8res, QC G9A 5H7, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Achenbach, T. 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