{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T17:37:50Z","timestamp":1791308270581,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,22]],"date-time":"2026-06-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782086400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008054","name":"Fundaci\u00f3n Ram\u00f3n Areces","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["\u201cAccesibilidad ling\u00fc\u00edstica en la web: investigaci\u00f3n psicoling\u00fc\u00edstica para la implementaci\u00f3n de la Lec-tura F\u00e1cil\u201d"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["\u201cAccesibilidad ling\u00fc\u00edstica en la web: investigaci\u00f3n psicoling\u00fc\u00edstica para la implementaci\u00f3n de la Lec-tura F\u00e1cil\u201d"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008054","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["\u201cAccesibilidad ling\u00fc\u00edstica en la web: investigaci\u00f3n psicoling\u00fc\u00edstica para la implementaci\u00f3n de la Lec-tura F\u00e1cil\u201d"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["\u201cAccesibilidad ling\u00fc\u00edstica en la web: investigaci\u00f3n psicoling\u00fc\u00edstica para la implementaci\u00f3n de la Lec-tura F\u00e1cil\u201d"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04ra91131","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100011033","name":"Agencia Estatal de Investigaci\u00f3n","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PID2024-161331NB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2024-161331NB-I00"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100011033","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["PID2024-161331NB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2024-161331NB-I00"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/003x0zc53","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Easy-to-Read (E2R) recommendations aim to improve accessibility, but it remains unclear whether some visual and typographic adaptations may also benefit readers without disabilities. This study examined the effects of different text formats on reading comprehension and visual processing in university students using eye-tracking. Twenty-four young adults without cognitive disabilities read texts presented in three formats: hard-to-read, control, and Easy-to-Read. Reading comprehension was assessed with multiple-choice questions, and eye movements were recorded during reading. Data were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models. Text Format significantly affected reading comprehension, with estimated accuracy highest in the E2R format and significantly higher than in the hard-to-read format. The E2R format was also associated with shorter fixation durations and larger saccades than the other formats, suggesting a pattern compatible with a reduced cognitive demand in some eye-movement measures. Fixation count was highest for hard-to-read texts and significantly higher than in the control format, whereas differences involving E2R were not significant. Reading time showed a trend towards significance, with descriptively longer reading times for hard-to-read texts than for the control and E2R formats. These findings suggest that E2R adaptations, originally developed to support populations with cognitive needs, may also facilitate comprehension and reading efficiency in readers without cognitive disabilities.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs16061041","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T06:13:37Z","timestamp":1782195217000},"page":"1041","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["An Eye-Tracking Study on Text Accessibility and Comprehension in University Students"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0889-8252","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sergio","family":"Navas-Le\u00f3n","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Nebrija en Cognici\u00f3n (CINC), Department of Education, Universidad Nebrija, 28043 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3312-8559","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jon Andoni","family":"Du\u00f1abeitia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Nebrija en Cognici\u00f3n (CINC), Department of Education, Universidad Nebrija, 28043 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Asociaci\u00f3n Espa\u00f1ola de Normalizaci\u00f3n [UNE] (2018). Lectura F\u00e1cil. Pautas y recomendaciones para la elaboraci\u00f3n de documentos (UNE 153101:2018 EX), UNE. Available online: https:\/\/fmyv.es\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/08\/NMESPDF0563487UNE1531012018EX.pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2012.11.001","article-title":"Random effects structure for confirmatory hypothesis testing: Keep it maximal","volume":"68","author":"Barr","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Memory and Language"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"135","article-title":"Validaci\u00f3n de la escala INFLESZ para evaluar la legibilidad de los textos dirigidos a pacientes","volume":"31","author":"Melguizo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anales del Sistema Sanitario de Navarra"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01","article-title":"Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4","volume":"67","author":"Bates","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Software"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bernard, M., Liao, C. H., and Mills, M. (2001). The effects of font type and size on the legibility and reading time of online text by older adults. CHI \u201901 extended abstracts on human factors in computing systems, ACM.","DOI":"10.1145\/634067.634173"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"British Dyslexia Association (2026, May 01). Dyslexia style guide, Available online: http:\/\/www.bdadyslexia.org.uk\/."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9817.2009.01421.x","article-title":"The reading rate and comprehension of adults with impaired reading skills or visual discomfort","volume":"34","author":"Conlon","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Research in Reading"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2010.09.012","article-title":"Fortune favors the bold (and the italicized): Effects of disfluency on educational outcomes","volume":"118","author":"Oppenheimer","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103923","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csi.2024.103923","article-title":"Web accessibility barriers and their cross-disability impact in eSystems: A scoping review","volume":"92","author":"Droutsas","year":"2025","journal-title":"Computer Standards and Interfaces"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1246","DOI":"10.3758\/s13428-013-0326-1","article-title":"EsPal: One-stop shopping for Spanish word properties","volume":"45","author":"Duchon","year":"2013","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Du\u00f1abeitia, J. A., Perea, M., and Labusch, M. (2023). R\u00eb\u00e2d\u012b\u0144g w\u00f5rd\u0161 w\u00eeth \u014dr\u0144\u00e5m\u00ea\u0144t\u0161: Is there a cost?. Frontiers in Psychology, 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1168471"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ekin, M., Krejtz, K., Duarte, C., Pereira, L. S., Marcus-Quinn, A., and Krejtz, I. (2025). Impact of web accessibility on cognitive engagement in individuals without disabilities: Evidence from a psychophysiological study. PLoS ONE, 20, (7).","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0328552"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03203267","article-title":"Effects of noise letters upon the identification of a target letter in a nonsearch task","volume":"16","author":"Eriksen","year":"1974","journal-title":"Perception & Psychophysics"},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_14.1","unstructured":"European Parliament and Council of the European Union (2019). Directive"},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_14.2","unstructured":"(EU) 2019\/882 of the European parliament and of the council of 17 April 2019 on the accessibility requirements for products and services. Official Journal of the European Union, L 151, 70-115."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"F\u0103rca\u0219iu, M. A., Gherhe\u0219, V., \u0218imon, S., Dejica-Car\u021bi\u0219, D., C\u0103dariu, L., and Kilyeni, A. (2023). Easy-to-Read: Evolution and perspectives. A bibliometric analysis of research, 1978\u20132021. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20, (4).","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20043359"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1905","DOI":"10.1007\/s10209-024-01129-8","article-title":"Exploring the potential of easy language for enhancing website sustainability","volume":"24","year":"2025","journal-title":"Universal Access in the Information Society"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1369","DOI":"10.1007\/s10209-023-00975-2","article-title":"Empirical evaluation of easy language recommendations: A systematic literature review from journal research in Catalan, English, and Spanish","volume":"23","author":"Matamala","year":"2024","journal-title":"Universal Access in the Information Society"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"1","article-title":"Null and overt pronouns and subordinate clauses in Catalan easy language: An eye-tracking study on adults with and without intellectual disabilities","volume":"38","author":"Krejtz","year":"2026","journal-title":"Parall\u00e8les"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e87","DOI":"10.1017\/langcog.2025.10042","article-title":"Visual support in easy language: The impact of images on comprehension, perceived difficulty and eye movements","volume":"17","author":"Krejtz","year":"2025","journal-title":"Language and Cognition"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.12504","article-title":"SIMR: An R package for power analysis of generalized linear mixed models by simulation","volume":"7","author":"Green","year":"2016","journal-title":"Methods in Ecology and Evolution"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Hartig, F., Lohse, L., and de Souza Leite, M. (2026, May 01). DHARMa: Residual diagnostics for hierarchical (multi-level\/mixed) regression models (R package), Available online: https:\/\/cran.r-project.org\/web\/packages\/DHARMa\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Henni, S. H., Maurud, S., Fuglerud, K. S., and Moen, A. (2022). The experiences, needs and barriers of people with impairments related to usability and accessibility of digital health solutions. BMC Public Health, 22, (1).","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-021-12393-1"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Holmqvist, K., Nystr\u00f6m, M., Andersson, R., Dewhurst, R., Jarodzka, H., and Van de Weijer, J. (2011). Eye tracking: A comprehensive guide to methods and measures, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.1111\/jir.12097","article-title":"Is easy read information really easier to read?","volume":"58","author":"Hurtado","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Intellectual Disability Research"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Iacono, T. (2026). The evidence underlying guidelines for Easy Read to make written information accessible to people with intellectual disabilities. Research and Practice in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 1\u201322.","DOI":"10.1080\/23297018.2026.2654656"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Inclusion Europe (2026, May 01). Easy-to-read checklist: Checklist to make sure your document is easy to read, Available online: https:\/\/www.inclusion-europe.eu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/Easy-to-read-checklist-Inclusion-Europe.pdf."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Krejtz, K., Duchowski, A. T., Niedzielska, A., Biele, C., and Krejtz, I. (2018). Eye tracking cognitive load using pupil diameter and microsaccades with fixed gaze. PLoS ONE, 13, (9).","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0203629"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1080\/10400435.2017.1414086","article-title":"Moving toward a universally accessible web: Web accessibility and education","volume":"31","author":"Kurt","year":"2019","journal-title":"Assistive Technology"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v082.i13","article-title":"lmerTest package: Tests in linear mixed effects models","volume":"82","author":"Kuznetsova","year":"2017","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Software"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Lenth, R., Singmann, H., Love, J., Buerkner, P., and Herve, M. (2019). emmeans: Estimated marginal means, aka least-squares means [R package], The R Foundation."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1002\/rrq.85","article-title":"The new literacies of online research and comprehension: Rethinking the reading achievement gap","volume":"50","author":"Leu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Reading Research Quarterly"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.displa.2007.04.003","article-title":"The influence of line spacing and text alignment on visual search of web pages","volume":"28","author":"Ling","year":"2007","journal-title":"Displays"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1080\/10810730.2021.1987591","article-title":"Disabilities and the digital divide: Assessing web accessibility, readability, and mobility of popular health websites","volume":"26","author":"Mason","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Health Communication"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1080\/20445911.2011.546781","article-title":"Do serifs provide an advantage in the recognition of written words?","volume":"23","author":"Perea","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Cognitive Psychology"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Palinko, O., Kun, A. L., Shyrokov, A., and Heeman, P. (2010). Estimating cognitive load using remote eye tracking in a driving simulator. Proceedings of the 2010 symposium on eye-tracking research & applications, ACM.","DOI":"10.1145\/1743666.1743701"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E28","DOI":"10.1017\/sjp.2016.28","article-title":"Does extra interletter spacing help text reading in skilled adult readers?","volume":"19","author":"Perea","year":"2016","journal-title":"Spanish Journal of Psychology"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-011-0214-6","article-title":"Increasing interletter spacing facilitates encoding of words","volume":"19","author":"Perea","year":"2012a","journal-title":"Psychonomic Bulletin & Review"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Perea, M., and Gomez, P. (2012b). Subtle increases in interletter spacing facilitate the encoding of words during normal reading. PLoS ONE, 7, (10).","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0047568"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"R Core Team (2024). R: A language and environment for statistical computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rello, L., and Marcos, M. C. (2012). An eye tracking study on text customization for user performance and preference. Proceedings of the 2012 8th Latin American web congress (LA-WEB 2012), IEEE.","DOI":"10.1109\/LA-WEB.2012.13"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rello, L., Pielot, M., Marcos, M. C., and Carlini, R. (2013). Size matters (spacing not): 18 points for a dyslexic-friendly Wikipedia. Proceedings of the 10th international cross-disciplinary conference on web accessibility, Association for Computing Machinery.","DOI":"10.1145\/2461121.2461125"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1007\/s11881-021-00217-1","article-title":"An experimental eye-tracking study of text adaptation for readers with dyslexia: Effects of visual support and word frequency","volume":"71","author":"Engelhardt","year":"2021","journal-title":"Annals of Dyslexia"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101731","DOI":"10.1016\/j.learninstruc.2022.101731","article-title":"Do easy-to-read adaptations really facilitate sentence processing for adults with a lower level of education? An experimental eye-tracking study","volume":"84","author":"Engelhardt","year":"2023","journal-title":"Learning and Instruction"},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"D\u00edez, A., and Guti\u00e9rrez, R. (2020). \u00bfLegibilidad es sin\u00f3nimo de comprensi\u00f3n en Lectura F\u00e1cil? Una revisi\u00f3n. Lectura y dificultades lectoras en el siglo XXI, Octaedro."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1177\/0145482X0710100703","article-title":"The legibility of typefaces for readers with low vision: A research review","volume":"101","author":"Jutai","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12711","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-49051-x","article-title":"Investigating effects of typographic variables on webpage reading through eye movements","volume":"9","author":"Scaltritti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720816640962","article-title":"Implementing recommendations from web accessibility guidelines: Would they also provide benefits to nondisabled users?","volume":"58","author":"Schmutz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Human Factors"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"956","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720817708397","article-title":"Implementing recommendations from web accessibility guidelines: A comparative study of nondisabled users and users with visual impairments","volume":"59","author":"Schmutz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Human Factors"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2018.08.013","article-title":"Easy-to-read language in disability-friendly websites: Effects on nondisabled users","volume":"74","author":"Schmutz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Applied Ergonomics"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1111\/jppi.12201","article-title":"The evidence for Easy-Read for people with intellectual disabilities: A systematic literature review","volume":"13","author":"Sutherland","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"United Nations (2026, May 01). Convention on the rights of persons with disabilities, Available online: https:\/\/www.un.org\/disabilities\/documents\/convention\/convoptprot-s.pdf."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2014.02.036","article-title":"Easy-to-read meets accessible web in the e-government context","volume":"27","author":"Velleman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Procedia Computer Science"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2024.06.014","article-title":"The association between physiological and eye-tracking metrics and cognitive load in drivers: A meta-analysis","volume":"104","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) (2026, May 01). W3C accessibility standards overview: Accessibility guidelines, Available online: https:\/\/www.w3.org\/WAI\/standards-guidelines\/#guidelines."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zagermann, J., Pfeil, U., and Reiterer, H. (2016). Measuring cognitive load using eye tracking technology in visual computing. Proceedings of the sixth workshop on beyond time and errors on novel evaluation methods for visualization, ACM.","DOI":"10.1145\/2993901.2993908"}],"container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/16\/6\/1041\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]],"date-time":"2026-06-27T04:28:34Z","timestamp":1782534514000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/16\/6\/1041"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,22]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["bs16061041"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bs16061041","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-328X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-328X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,22]]}}}