{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T22:19:06Z","timestamp":1789683546950,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1784505600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study conducted a PRISMA-guided systematic review of 33 empirical studies examining learner interactions with AI-mediated feedback in L2 writing between 2010 and 2025. Evidence was synthesized from process-tracing methods, including keystroke logging, eye-tracking, screen capture, interaction logs, and draft-history analytics. The findings revealed two recurring interaction profiles. Higher-regulation learners typically engaged in selective uptake, recursive evaluation, and extended processing of AI feedback, whereas lower-regulation learners more frequently indicate rapid acceptance and reduced evaluative engagement. Across studies, micro-level feedback was associated with shorter revision latencies and burst-editing patterns, whereas macro-level feedback was associated with longer processing times and repeated revision cycles. The review also identified substantial methodological variability in trace precision, AI transparency, multimodal triangulation, and reproducibility practices. Overall, the evidence suggests that the effectiveness of AI-mediated feedback depends not only on the quality of the feedback provided but also on how learners regulate and engage with it during revision. Greater methodological transparency and more rigorous process-tracing designs are needed to strengthen future research on AI-supported writing development.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs16071229","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T10:44:02Z","timestamp":1784544242000},"page":"1229","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Metacognitive Filtering and Cognitive Offloading in AI-Assisted L2 Writing: A PRISMA Guided Process-Tracing Synthesis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-4443-5220","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Latifah Hamdan","family":"Alghamdi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"English Language Center, College of Languages and Translation, King Khalid University, Abha 61421, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1088-9216","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Talal Musaed","family":"Alghizzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Languages and Translation, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh 11564, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alghamdi, L. H., and Alghizzi, T. M. (2025). Educators\u2019 reflections on AI-automated feedback in higher education: A structured integrative review of potentials, pitfalls, and ethical dimensions. Frontiers in Education, 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2025.1704820"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1177\/0265532213509810","article-title":"Examining the impact of L2 proficiency and keyboarding skills on scores on TOEFL iBT writing tasks","volume":"31","author":"Barkaoui","year":"2014","journal-title":"Language Testing"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1080\/09588221.2021.1936071","article-title":"Using automated written corrective feedback in the writing classroom: Effects on L2 writing accuracy","volume":"36","author":"Barrot","year":"2023","journal-title":"Computer Assisted Language Learning"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1315","DOI":"10.1080\/02602938.2018.1463354","article-title":"The development of student feedback literacy: Enabling uptake of feedback","volume":"43","author":"Carless","year":"2018","journal-title":"Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1186\/s40468-017-0040-5","article-title":"Using keystroke logging to understand writers\u2019 processes on a reading-into-writing test","volume":"7","author":"Chan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Lang Test Asia"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jslw.2025.101228","article-title":"Zooming in on the process-product nexus of meaning-related revisions: A micro-analytic approach to keystroke logging data","volume":"69","author":"Chan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Second Language Writing"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1080\/15434303.2020.1804913","article-title":"Evaluating writing process features in an adult EFL writing assessment context: A keystroke logging study","volume":"18","author":"Choi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Language Assessment Quarterly"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1177\/0267658316637401","article-title":"Using eye-tracking in applied linguistics and second language research","volume":"32","author":"Conklin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Second Language Research"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103356","DOI":"10.29140\/aile.2026.103356","article-title":"Enhancing L2 writing with AI: Effects of ChatGPT feedback and the role of student engagement","volume":"2","author":"Ding","year":"2026","journal-title":"Artificial Intelligence in Language Education"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.58680\/ccc198115885","article-title":"A cognitive process theory of writing","volume":"32","author":"Flower","year":"1981","journal-title":"College Composition and Communication"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.64152\/10125\/73570","article-title":"Distributed agency in second language learning and teaching through generative AI","volume":"28","year":"2024","journal-title":"Language Learning & Technology"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Hyland, K., and Jiang, F. (2023). Automated written corrective feedback in research paper revision: The good, the bad, and the missing. Generative AI and applied linguistics, Routledge."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Higgins, J. P. T., Thomas, J., Chandler, J., Cumpston, M., Li, T., Page, M. J., Welch, V., and Flemyng, E. (2026, June 29). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions (Version 6.5, updated August 2024), Available online: https:\/\/www.cochrane.org\/authors\/handbooks-and-manuals\/handbook."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101230","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jslw.2025.101230","article-title":"Generative AI is useful for second language writing, but when, why, and for how long do learners use it?","volume":"69","author":"Hwang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Second Language Writing"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/jedm.12000","article-title":"Validating the Interpretations and Uses of Test Scores","volume":"50","author":"Kane","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Measurement"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lindif.2023.102274","article-title":"ChatGPT for good? On opportunities and challenges of large language models for education","volume":"103","author":"Kasneci","year":"2023","journal-title":"Learning and Individual Differences"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100450","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asw.2020.100450","article-title":"Student engagement with automated written corrective feedback (AWCF) provided by grammarly: A multiple case study","volume":"44","author":"Koltovskaia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Assessing Writing"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1177\/0741088313491692","article-title":"Keystroke logging in writing research: Using inputlog to analyze and visualize writing processes","volume":"30","author":"Leijten","year":"2013","journal-title":"Written Communication"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jslw.2014.10.004","article-title":"Rethinking the role of automated writing evaluation (AWE) feedback in ESL writing instruction","volume":"27","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Second Language Writing"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1093\/elt\/ccv058","article-title":"Using automated writing evaluation to reduce grammar errors in writing","volume":"70","author":"Liao","year":"2016","journal-title":"ELT Journal"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.1017\/S1351324922000298","article-title":"Neural automated writing evaluation for Korean L2 writing","volume":"29","author":"Lim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Natural Language Engineering"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103529","DOI":"10.1016\/j.system.2024.103529","article-title":"The grass is not always greener: Teacher Vs. GPT-assisted written corrective feedback","volume":"127","author":"Lin","year":"2024","journal-title":"System"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1080\/09588221.2020.1743323","article-title":"Impact of automated writing evaluation on teacher feedback, student revision, and writing improvement","volume":"35","author":"Link","year":"2022","journal-title":"Computer Assisted Language Learning"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1558\/cj.v33i1.26380","article-title":"Investigating the application of automated writing evaluation to Chinese undergraduate English majors: A case study of writetolearn","volume":"33","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"CALICO Journal"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101020","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asw.2026.101020","article-title":"L2 learners\u2019 engagement with AI-generated feedback on writing","volume":"68","author":"Ma","year":"2026","journal-title":"Assessing Writing"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1007\/s44217-025-00602-7","article-title":"Generative AI-assisted feedback and EFL writing: A study on proficiency, revision frequency and writing quality","volume":"4","author":"Mekheimer","year":"2025","journal-title":"Discover Education"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2251","DOI":"10.1177\/13621688211041292","article-title":"L1 Versus L2 writing processes: What insight can we obtain from a keystroke logging program?","volume":"28","author":"Mohsen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Language Teaching Research"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"n71","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.n71","article-title":"The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews","volume":"372","author":"Page","year":"2021","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petticrew, M., and Roberts, H. (2006). Systematic reviews in the social sciences: A practical guide, Blackwell.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470754887"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1080\/09588221.2018.1428994","article-title":"Automated Written corrective feedback: How well can students make use of it?","volume":"31","author":"Ranalli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Computer Assisted Language Learning"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100816","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jslw.2021.100816","article-title":"L2 Student Engagement with automated feedback on writing: Potential for learning and issues of trust","volume":"52","author":"Ranalli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Second Language Writing"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1080\/01443410.2015.1136407","article-title":"Automated writing evaluation for formative assessment of second language writing: Investigating the accuracy and usefulness of feedback as part of argument-based validation","volume":"37","author":"Ranalli","year":"2017","journal-title":"Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"1","article-title":"Automated written corrective feedback: Error-correction performance and timing of delivery","volume":"26","author":"Ranalli","year":"2022","journal-title":"Language Learning & Technology"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1017\/S0272263115000339","article-title":"Measuring cognitive task demands using dual-task methodology, subjective self-ratings, and expert judgments","volume":"38","author":"Michel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Studies in Second Language Acquisition"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1017\/S027226311900024X","article-title":"Exploring second language writers\u2019 pausing and revision behaviors: A mixed-methods study","volume":"41","author":"Michel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Studies in Second Language Acquisition"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1017\/S0958344021000021","article-title":"Voluntary use of automated writing evaluation by content course students","volume":"33","author":"Saricaoglu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Recall"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., and Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference, Houghton Mifflin."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"074108831878807","article-title":"Exploring the process of reading during writing using eye tracking and keystroke logging","volume":"35","author":"Smet","year":"2018","journal-title":"Written Communication"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hyland, K., and Hyland, F. (2019). Automated feedback and second language writing. Feedback in second language writing: Contexts and issues, Cambridge University Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108635547"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1168","DOI":"10.29140\/tltl.v6n1.1168","article-title":"Adopting Chatgpt as a writing buddy in the advanced L2 writing class","volume":"6","author":"Strobl","year":"2024","journal-title":"Technology in Language Teaching & Learning"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-019-09465-5","article-title":"Cognitive architecture and instructional design: 20 years later","volume":"31","author":"Sweller","year":"2019","journal-title":"Educational Psychology Review"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.17239\/jowr-2025.17.01.02","article-title":"The klicke corpus: Keystroke logging in compositions for knowledge evaluation","volume":"17","author":"Tian","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Writing Research"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.17239\/jowr-2024.15.03.01","article-title":"Making sense of L2 written argumentation with keystroke logging","volume":"15","author":"Tian","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Writing Research"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1177\/07410883221127998","article-title":"Writing process feedback based on keystroke logging and comparison with exemplars: Effects on the quality and process of synthesis texts","volume":"40","author":"Vandermeulen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Written Communication"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhai, Y. (2025). Automated written corrective feedback: Fostering writing accuracy, self-regulation, and motivational dynamics in EFL learners. BMC Psychology, 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/s40359-025-03765-y"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100697","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asw.2023.100697","article-title":"Exploring the development of student feedback literacy in the second language writing classroom","volume":"55","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Assessing Writing"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100784","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asw.2023.100784","article-title":"Student engagement with peer feedback in L2 writing: Insights from reflective journaling and revising practices","volume":"58","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Assessing Writing"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1080\/15434303.2023.2291478","article-title":"Insights into editing and revising in writing process using keystroke logs","volume":"20","author":"Zhu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Language Assessment Quarterly"}],"container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/16\/7\/1229\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]],"date-time":"2026-07-20T11:18:28Z","timestamp":1784546308000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/16\/7\/1229"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]}},"alternative-id":["bs16071229"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bs16071229","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-328X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-328X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,20]]}}}