{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T07:44:15Z","timestamp":1785743055803,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785715200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Hainan Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["724QN257"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["724QN257"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behav. Sci.","Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Semantic radicals are meaning-bearing sublexical components of Chinese characters that have been shown to facilitate incidental vocabulary learning in L1 Chinese readers. However, it remains unclear whether this sublexical mechanism extends to learners of Chinese as a foreign language (CFL), and how semantic radicals shape the online processing and learning outcomes of novel words in both populations. The present study investigated the role of semantic radical consistency in incidental vocabulary learning among L1 readers and CFL learners. Eye movements were recorded while participants read sentences containing novel two-character pseudowords whose semantic radicals were manipulated to be either consistent or inconsistent with the word\u2019s semantic category. Both groups successfully acquired orthographic and semantic representations of the novel words, with L1 readers outperforming CFL learners. Eye-tracking data revealed a significant group-by-consistency interaction during initial exposures. L1 readers exhibited dynamic sensitivity to radical consistency, allocating more fixation time to inconsistent items at first exposure and rapidly adjusting by the second, whereas CFL learners showed no reliable online consistency effects. Moreover, reading time proved a task-specific predictor of learning outcomes. Longer initial fixation benefited orthographic learning, while extended cumulative reading time was negatively associated with semantic accuracy. Taken together, these findings suggest that sublexical semantic cue deployment during real-time reading is qualitatively distinct between L1 readers and CFL learners.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs16081317","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T06:17:40Z","timestamp":1785737860000},"page":"1317","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Semantic Radical Consistency in Incidental Chinese Vocabulary Learning: A Comparison of Native Readers and Chinese as a Foreign Language (CFL) Learners"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-6787-3206","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fei","family":"He","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China"},{"name":"Adolescent Psychological Development and Education Center of Hainan, Haikou 571158, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shaobei","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China"},{"name":"Adolescent Psychological Development and Education Center of Hainan, Haikou 571158, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kanghui","family":"Cheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yanwei","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ruitai","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Psychology, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xuejun","family":"Bai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Research Base of Humanities and Social Sciences of the Ministry of Education, Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin 300387, China"},{"name":"Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin 300387, China"},{"name":"Tianjin Social Science Laboratory of Students\u2019 Mental Development and Learning, Tianjin 300387, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2007.12.005","article-title":"Mixed-effects modeling with crossed random effects for subjects and items","volume":"59","author":"Baayen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Memory and Language"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2012.11.001","article-title":"Random effects structure for confirmatory hypothesis testing: Keep it maximal","volume":"68","author":"Barr","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Memory and Language"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01","article-title":"Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4","volume":"67","author":"Bates","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Statistical Software"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1080\/15475441.2011.614893","article-title":"Once is enough: N400 indexes semantic integration of novel word meanings from a single exposure in context","volume":"8","author":"Borovsky","year":"2012","journal-title":"Language Learning and Development"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1002\/RRQ.015","article-title":"Combining contextual and morphemic cues is beneficial during incidental vocabulary acquisition: Semantic transparency in novel compound word processing","volume":"47","author":"Brusnighan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Reading Research Quarterly"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Center for Language Education and Cooperation, Ministry of Education of the People\u2019s Republic of China (2021a). 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