{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]],"date-time":"2026-08-10T11:29:55Z","timestamp":1786361395073,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]],"date-time":"2026-08-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785888000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Social Science Foundation of China Western Program of Education","award":["CBX230349"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CBX230349"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behav. Sci.","Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Objective: Intertemporal decision-making ability refers to an individual\u2019s capacity to evaluate and integrate temporally distributed outcomes, regulate goal-directed behavior, and construct future representations in intertemporal choice contexts. This construct reflects a core psychological processing capacity rather than a mere preference for specific choice outcomes. It plays a critical role in employees\u2019 long-term performance management, career development, and self-regulation. However, existing research lacks standardized measurement instruments that directly assess intertemporal decision-making ability among employee populations. Therefore, the present study aimed to develop and validate a structurally clear, reliable, and valid scale of employees\u2019 intertemporal decision-making ability applicable to Chinese organizational contexts. Methods: Using a sample of full-time employees from China, this study developed the scale based on a three-process framework of intertemporal decision making, encompassing three core psychological mechanisms: cognitive control, value evaluation, and future representation. Exploratory factor analysis (N = 433) and confirmatory factor analysis (N = 281) were conducted to examine the scale\u2019s factor structure. Impulsivity and job autonomy were employed as criterion variables to assess criterion-related validity. Results: The findings supported a three-factor structure comprising career executive control, long-term career reward trade-off, and career future representation. The final scale included 14 items. The Employee Intertemporal Decision-Making Ability Scale demonstrated good internal consistency and stable structural validity at both the overall and dimensional levels. In addition, intertemporal decision-making ability was significantly negatively correlated with impulsivity and significantly positively correlated with job autonomy, providing support for criterion-related validity. Conclusions: The Employee Intertemporal Decision-Making Ability Scale developed in this study demonstrates satisfactory reliability and validity and can serve as an instrument for assessing employees\u2019 intertemporal decision-making ability.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs16081349","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]],"date-time":"2026-08-05T16:48:08Z","timestamp":1785948488000},"page":"1349","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Development and Validation of the Chinese Employee Intertemporal Decision-Making Ability Scale"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Dawei","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250358, China"},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Research Center for Applied Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muze","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250358, China"},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Research Center for Applied Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaolong","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250358, China"},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Research Center for Applied Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yicheng","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250358, China"},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Research Center for Applied Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenxu","family":"Mao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250358, China"},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Research Center for Applied Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cuiyu","family":"Pang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250358, China"},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Research Center for Applied Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Feng","family":"Qiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Educational Science, Kashi University, Kashi 844008, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peng","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Educational Science, Kashi University, Kashi 844008, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yixin","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250358, China"},{"name":"Interdisciplinary Research Center for Applied Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2018.01.085","article-title":"Individual differences in risk-taking tendencies modulate the neural processing of risky and ambiguous decision-making in adolescence","volume":"172","author":"Blankenstein","year":"2018","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20210338","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2021.0338","article-title":"Intertemporal choice reflects value comparison rather than self-control: Insights from confidence judgements","volume":"377","author":"Bulley","year":"2022","journal-title":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2018.11.001","article-title":"Pattern classification differentiates decision of intertemporal choices using multi-voxel pattern analysis","volume":"111","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105355","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2023.105355","article-title":"Envisioning the future: An ALE meta-analysis on neural correlates of future thinking, prospective memory and delay discounting","volume":"153","author":"Cona","year":"2023","journal-title":"Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1037\/1040-3590.4.1.5","article-title":"Normal personality assessment in clinical practice: The NEO Personality Inventory","volume":"4","author":"Costa","year":"1992","journal-title":"Psychological Assessment"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"754","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-27601-8","article-title":"Job satisfaction has differential associations with delay discounting and risk-taking","volume":"13","author":"Rukh","year":"2023","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.16993\/sjwop.81","article-title":"The ambivalence of job autonomy and the role of job design demands","volume":"5","author":"Dettmers","year":"2020","journal-title":"Scandinavian Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrp.2006.06.006","article-title":"Procrastination: Different time orientations reflect different motives","volume":"41","author":"Ferrari","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Research in Personality"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics, Sage."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1017\/S1092852913000801","article-title":"New developments in human neurocognition: Clinical, genetic, and brain imaging correlates of impulsivity and compulsivity","volume":"19","author":"Fineberg","year":"2014","journal-title":"CNS Spectrums"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1229","DOI":"10.1080\/08870440903194015","article-title":"What is an adequate sample size? Operationalising data saturation for theory-based interview studies","volume":"25","author":"Francis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychology & Health"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1257\/jel.40.2.351","article-title":"Time discounting and time preference: A critical review","volume":"40","author":"Frederick","year":"2002","journal-title":"Journal of Economic Literature"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1038\/s44159-022-00056-w","article-title":"Understanding and shaping the future of work with self-determination theory","volume":"1","author":"Parker","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature Reviews Psychology"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"George, D., and Mallery, P. (2019). IBM SPSS statistics 26 step by step: A simple guide and reference, Taylor & Francis.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780429056765"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/0030-5073(76)90016-7","article-title":"Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory","volume":"16","author":"Hackman","year":"1976","journal-title":"Organizational Behavior and Human Performance"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1080\/01608061.2025.2454272","article-title":"When less is more: Exploring the relation between delay discounting rates in a personal and organizational context","volume":"45","author":"Mendez","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Organizational Behavior Management"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1177\/109442819800100106","article-title":"A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires","volume":"1","author":"Hinkin","year":"1998","journal-title":"Organizational Research Methods"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1277","DOI":"10.1177\/1049732305276687","article-title":"Three approaches to qualitative content analysis","volume":"15","author":"Hsieh","year":"2005","journal-title":"Qualitative Health Research"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3718","DOI":"10.1111\/jan.14861","article-title":"Intensified job demands in healthcare and their consequences for employee well-being and patient satisfaction: A multilevel approach","volume":"77","author":"Huhtala","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Advanced Nursing"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1016\/j.leaqua.2017.12.006","article-title":"Leadership behavior and employee well-being: An integrated review and a future research agenda","volume":"29","author":"Inceoglu","year":"2018","journal-title":"The Leadership Quarterly"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6127","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-10142-x","article-title":"Learned self-regulation in top-level managers through neurobiofeedback training improves decision making under stress","volume":"12","author":"Iodice","year":"2022","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"1200","article-title":"Promotion orientation explains why future-oriented people exercise and eat healthy","volume":"34","author":"Joireman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1625","DOI":"10.1038\/nn2007","article-title":"The neural correlates of subjective value during intertemporal choice","volume":"10","author":"Kable","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nature Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1037\/h0057123","article-title":"The selection of upper and lower groups for the validation of test items","volume":"30","author":"Kelley","year":"1939","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1207\/S15324834BA210207","article-title":"Who\u2019s smoking, drinking, and using drugs? Time perspective as a predictor of substance use","volume":"21","author":"Keough","year":"1999","journal-title":"Basic and Applied Social Psychology"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1037\/apl0000306","article-title":"Future time perspective: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"103","author":"Kooij","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Psychology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797619894205","article-title":"Children delay gratification for cooperative ends","volume":"31","author":"Koomen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.2307\/2529786","article-title":"An application of hierarchical kappa-type statistics in the assessment of majority agreement among multiple observers","volume":"33","author":"Landis","year":"1977","journal-title":"Biometrics"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"563","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1744-6570.1975.tb01393.x","article-title":"A quantitative approach to content validity","volume":"28","author":"Lawshe","year":"1975","journal-title":"Personnel Psychology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2015.09.005","article-title":"The malleability of intertemporal choice","volume":"20","author":"Lempert","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"1199","article-title":"Reliability and validity of the Chinese version of the Brief Barratt Impulsivity Scale","volume":"28","author":"Luo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1177\/0008125618805111","article-title":"Management innovation in a VUCA world: Challenges and recommendations","volume":"61","author":"Millar","year":"2018","journal-title":"California Management Review"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1003","DOI":"10.1037\/pas0000003","article-title":"Psychometrically improved, abbreviated versions of three classic measures of impulsivity and self-control","volume":"26","author":"Morean","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychological Assessment"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1177\/0149206310363732","article-title":"Making things happen: A model of proactive motivation","volume":"36","author":"Parker","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Management"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"810","DOI":"10.3724\/SP.J.1042.2014.00810","article-title":"Intervention program and neural mechanisms for intertemporal choice in addicts","volume":"22","author":"Peng","year":"2014","journal-title":"Advances in Psychological Science"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2011.03.002","article-title":"The neural mechanisms of inter-temporal decision-making: Understanding variability","volume":"15","author":"Peters","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.55.1.68","article-title":"Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being","volume":"55","author":"Ryan","year":"2000","journal-title":"American Psychologist"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jvb.2012.01.011","article-title":"Career adapt-abilities scale: Construction, reliability, and measurement equivalence across 13 countries","volume":"80","author":"Savickas","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Vocational Behavior"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"832","article-title":"Perceived job autonomy in the manufacturing sector: Effects of unions, gender, and substantive complexity","volume":"29","author":"Shirom","year":"1986","journal-title":"Academy of Management Journal"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1002\/per.1947","article-title":"Out of sight, out of time? A meta-analytic investigation of procrastination and time perspective","volume":"28","author":"Sirois","year":"2014","journal-title":"European Journal of Personality"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1007\/s11031-018-9698-y","article-title":"Leader autonomy support in the workplace: A meta-analytic review","volume":"42","author":"Slemp","year":"2018","journal-title":"Motivation and Emotion"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1037\/a0026423","article-title":"Future work selves: How salient hoped-for identities motivate proactive career behaviors","volume":"97","author":"Strauss","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Psychology"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1002\/job.1897","article-title":"Do organizations spend wisely on employees? Effects of training and development investments on learning and innovation in organizations","volume":"35","author":"Sung","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Organizational Behavior"},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"315","article-title":"Relationships among academic procrastination, psychological flexibility, and delay discounting","volume":"19","author":"Sutcliffe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"312","article-title":"Deci and Ryan\u2019s self-determination theory: A view from the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation","volume":"11","author":"Vallerand","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychological Inquiry"},{"key":"ref_46","first-page":"E3765","article-title":"Adolescent impatience decreases with increased frontostriatal connectivity","volume":"112","author":"Rodriguez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2015.04.002","article-title":"NOW vs LATER brain circuits: Implications for obesity and addiction","volume":"38","author":"Volkow","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends in Neurosciences"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2401034","DOI":"10.1080\/00049530.2024.2401034","article-title":"Development and validation of Intertemporal Decision-Making Ability Scale for early adolescents","volume":"76","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Australian Journal of Psychology"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2018.03.011","article-title":"Time perspective as a predictor of procrastination","volume":"238","author":"Zabelina","year":"2018","journal-title":"Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences"}],"container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/16\/8\/1349\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,10]],"date-time":"2026-08-10T10:49:40Z","timestamp":1786358980000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/16\/8\/1349"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["bs16081349"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bs16081349","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-328X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-328X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]]}}}