{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,23]],"date-time":"2026-08-23T04:22:13Z","timestamp":1787458933192,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787270400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Social Science Fund of China","award":["24BWY114"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["24BWY114"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behav. Sci.","Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Individual differences in statistical learning (SL) constitute an important cognitive mechanism that supports second language (L2) syntactic processing. However, existing research has primarily focused on adult populations, while potential differences across input modalities remain understudied. This study investigated the associations between SL and implicit L2 morphosyntactic processing among Chinese adolescent English learners, comparing results across visual and auditory modalities. Participants completed visual and auditory SL tasks, self-paced reading (SPR), self-paced listening (SPL), as well as working memory (WM) and attention tasks. L2 morphosyntactic processing ability was measured via grammatical sensitivity indicators extracted from SPR and SPL data. Mixed-effects analyses did not detect statistically reliable group-level grammaticality effects in either task, though SPR exhibited a descriptive pattern where ungrammatical sentences elicited longer reading times at the third word. Participants achieved higher accuracy on the visual SL task than the auditory one. In exploratory regression analyses, visual SL accuracy was found to positively predict grammatical sensitivity measured at Word 3 in SPR. Still, this association was not confirmed in a follow-up sensitivity analysis. No corresponding significant association was observed between auditory SL and SPL sensitivity, and neither working memory nor attention showed consistent independent contributions to the outcome. These findings extend individual-differences research on this topic to adolescent classroom L2 learners and underscore the potentially important role of visual regularity learning in online L2 reading processing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs16081452","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T14:20:36Z","timestamp":1787322036000},"page":"1452","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Contributions of Statistical Learning to L2 Morphosyntax Processing Across Visual and Auditory Modalities in Chinese Adolescent Learners"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-7282-332X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kaiyue","family":"Song","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Foreign Studies, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Weijia","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Foreign Studies, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-5213-2504","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Guoying","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Foreign Studies, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yueyan","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Foreign Studies, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hui","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Bandao School, Huiyang District, Huizhou 516221, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Li","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Key Laboratory of Chinese Learning and International Promotion, School of International Culture, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1027","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.4108","article-title":"The association between statistical learning and the development of second language grammar learning","volume":"37","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Applied Cognitive Psychology"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105749","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2026.105749","article-title":"The neural mechanism underlying statistical learning\u2019s contribution to L2 grammar learning","volume":"277","author":"Chen","year":"2026","journal-title":"Brain and Language"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"24","article-title":"Modality-constrained statistical learning of tactile, visual, and auditory sequences","volume":"31","author":"Conway","year":"2005","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1017\/S0142716411000890","article-title":"Proficiency- and working-memory-based explanations for nonnative speakers\u2019 sensitivity to agreement in sentence processing","volume":"34","author":"Coughlin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Applied Psycholinguistics"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1111\/lang.12522","article-title":"Second language learning via syntactic priming: Investigating the role of modality, attention, and motivation","volume":"73","author":"Coumel","year":"2023","journal-title":"Language Learning"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13431","DOI":"10.1111\/cogs.13431","article-title":"A comprehensive examination of prediction-based error as a mechanism for syntactic development: Evidence from syntactic priming","volume":"48","author":"Donnelly","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cognitive Science"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-4781.2008.00716.x","article-title":"The dynamics of second language emergence: Cycles of language use, language change, and language acquisition","volume":"92","author":"Ellis","year":"2008","journal-title":"The Modern Language Journal"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.1111\/cogs.12257","article-title":"The relationship between artificial and second language learning","volume":"40","author":"Ettlinger","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cognitive Science"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1162\/089892902317361886","article-title":"Testing the efficiency and independence of attentional networks","volume":"14","author":"Fan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1177\/0267658316684903","article-title":"The interplay of individual differences and context of learning in behavioral and neurocognitive second language development","volume":"34","year":"2018","journal-title":"Second Language Research"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104859","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2021.104859","article-title":"Developmental effects in the online use of morphosyntactic cues in sentence processing: Evidence from Tagalog","volume":"216","author":"Garcia","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1017\/S0272263121000085","article-title":"The contributions of implicit-statistical learning aptitude to implicit second-language knowledge","volume":"43","author":"Godfroid","year":"2021","journal-title":"Studies in Second Language Acquisition"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"665","DOI":"10.1111\/lang.12018","article-title":"Individual differences in sequence learning ability and second language acquisition in early childhood and adulthood","volume":"63","author":"Granena","year":"2013","journal-title":"Language Learning"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1080\/10888438.2016.1243541","article-title":"Statistical learning as a key to cracking Chinese orthographic codes","volume":"21","author":"He","year":"2017","journal-title":"Scientific Studies of Reading"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1007\/s00426-026-02324-3","article-title":"Modality-specific consolidation shapes long-term retention in statistical learning","volume":"90","author":"Hu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Psychological Research"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jegerski, J., and VanPatten, B. (2013). Self-paced reading. Research methods in second language psycholinguistics, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203123430"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1017\/S0142716404001298","article-title":"Morphological insensitivity in second language processing","volume":"25","author":"Jiang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Applied Psycholinguistics"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9922.2007.00397.x","article-title":"Selective integration of linguistic knowledge in adult second language learning","volume":"57","author":"Jiang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Language Learning"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.99.1.122","article-title":"A capacity theory of comprehension: Individual differences in working memory","volume":"99","author":"Just","year":"1992","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2014.07.004","article-title":"Executive function predicts artificial language learning","volume":"76","author":"Kapa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Memory and Language"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9922.2009.00516.x","article-title":"Sensitivity to violations of gender agreement in native and nonnative Spanish: An eye-movement investigation","volume":"59","author":"Keating","year":"2009","journal-title":"Language Learning"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1037\/a0025405","article-title":"Implicit statistical learning is directly associated with the acquisition of syntax","volume":"48","author":"Kidd","year":"2012","journal-title":"Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1111\/cdev.12461","article-title":"Individual differences in statistical learning predict children\u2019s comprehension of syntax","volume":"87","author":"Kidd","year":"2016","journal-title":"Child Development"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogdev.2023.101335","article-title":"The sources and consequences of individual differences in statistical learning for language development","volume":"66","author":"Kidd","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cognitive Development"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"763","DOI":"10.1017\/langcog.2023.16","article-title":"Sensitivity to syntactic dependency formation in child second language processing: A study of numeral quantifiers in Korean","volume":"15","author":"Kim","year":"2023","journal-title":"Language and Cognition"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1041","DOI":"10.1017\/S0272263120000133","article-title":"The effects of L1\u2013L2 phonological mappings on L2 phonological sensitivity: Evidence from self-paced listening","volume":"42","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Studies in Second Language Acquisition"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"648","DOI":"10.1111\/modl.12583","article-title":"Should we listen or read? Modality effects in implicit and explicit knowledge","volume":"103","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"The Modern Language Journal"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104374","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2022.104374","article-title":"Implicit learning of structure across time: A longitudinal investigation of syntactic priming in young English-acquiring children","volume":"127","author":"Kumarage","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Memory and Language"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1007\/s10936-023-09957-0","article-title":"Implicit statistical learning in L2 sentence processing: Individual cognitive differences","volume":"52","author":"Lee","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Psycholinguistic Research"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luk\u00e1cs, \u00c1., Dob\u00f3, D., Sz\u0151ll\u0151si, \u00c1., N\u00e9meth, K., and Lukics, K. S. (2023). Reading fluency and statistical learning across modalities and domains: Online and offline measures. PLoS ONE, 18, (3).","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0281788"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20878","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-24951-7","article-title":"Modality, presentation, domain and training effects in statistical learning","volume":"12","author":"Lukics","year":"2022","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Belikova, A., Meroni, L., and Umeda, M. (2007). On-line processing of passives in L1 and L2 children. Proceedings of the 2nd conference on generative approaches to language acquisition North America (GALANA), Cascadilla Proceedings Project."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1017\/S0142716418000036","article-title":"A methodological synthesis of self-paced reading in second language research","volume":"39","author":"Marsden","year":"2018","journal-title":"Applied Psycholinguistics"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2006.06.006","article-title":"Beyond the critical period: Processing-based explanations for poor grammaticality judgment performance by late second language learners","volume":"55","author":"McDonald","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of Memory and Language"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1111\/modl.12331","article-title":"The role of statistical learning and working memory in L2 speakers\u2019 pattern learning","volume":"100","author":"McDonough","year":"2016","journal-title":"The Modern Language Journal"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meulman, N., Stowe, L. A., Sprenger, S. A., Bresser, M., and Schmid, M. S. (2014). An ERP study on L2 syntax processing: When do learners fail?. Frontiers in Psychology, 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2014.01072"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Misyak, J. (2010). On-line individual differences in statistical learning predict language processing. Frontiers in Psychology, 1.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2010.00031"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9922.2010.00626.x","article-title":"Statistical learning and language: An individual differences study","volume":"62","author":"Misyak","year":"2012","journal-title":"Language Learning"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.3758\/CABN.5.3.263","article-title":"Cognitive control and parsing: Reexamining the role of Broca\u2019s area in sentence comprehension","volume":"5","author":"Novick","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"906","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-818X.2010.00244.x","article-title":"Broca\u2019s area and language processing: Evidence for the cognitive control connection","volume":"4","author":"Novick","year":"2010","journal-title":"Language and Linguistics Compass"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jegerski, J., and VanPatten, B. (2013). Self-paced listening. Research methods in second language psycholinguistics, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203123430"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.1111\/lang.12454","article-title":"Cognitive predictors of child second language comprehension and syntactic learning","volume":"71","year":"2021","journal-title":"Language Learning"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"103656","article-title":"Implicit statistical learning and working memory predict EFL development and written task outcomes in adolescents","volume":"131","author":"Hamrick","year":"2025","journal-title":"System"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1080\/10888438.2018.1485680","article-title":"Hearing matters more than seeing: A cross-modality study of statistical learning and reading ability","volume":"23","author":"Qi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Scientific Studies of Reading"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2022.105570","article-title":"Development of statistical learning ability across modalities, domains, and languages","volume":"226","author":"Ren","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Child Psychology"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1626","DOI":"10.1037\/dev0001577","article-title":"A meta-analysis on the correlations between statistical learning, language, and reading outcomes","volume":"59","author":"Ren","year":"2023","journal-title":"Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1515\/9781614510932.27","article-title":"Attention, awareness, and individual differences in language learning","volume":"6","author":"Schmidt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Perspectives on Individual Characteristics and Foreign Language Education"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schneider, J. M., Hu, A., Legault, J., and Qi, Z. (2020). Measuring statistical learning across modalities and domains in school-aged children via an online platform and neuroimaging techniques. Journal of Visualized Experiments, 61474.","DOI":"10.3791\/61474-v"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2018.04.011","article-title":"Linguistic entrenchment: Prior knowledge impacts statistical learning performance","volume":"177","author":"Siegelman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1111\/lang.12100","article-title":"L2 processing of plural inflection in English","volume":"65","author":"Song","year":"2015","journal-title":"Language Learning"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-014-9533-0","article-title":"Statistical learning is related to early literacy-related skills","volume":"28","author":"Spencer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Reading and Writing"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"53","article-title":"Executive function and language learning: Differentiating vocabulary and morpho-syntax","volume":"10","author":"Stone","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancaster Postgraduate Conference in Linguistics and Language Teaching"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1111\/lang.12241","article-title":"The interface of explicit and implicit knowledge in a second language: Insights from individual differences in cognitive aptitudes","volume":"67","author":"Suzuki","year":"2017","journal-title":"Language Learning"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1017\/S0272263122000043","article-title":"An fMRI validation study of the word-monitoring task as a measure of implicit knowledge: Exploring the role of explicit and implicit aptitudes in behavioral and neural processing","volume":"45","author":"Suzuki","year":"2023","journal-title":"Studies in Second Language Acquisition"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728916000857","article-title":"Automatization in second language sentence processing: Relationship between elicited imitation and maze tasks","volume":"21","author":"Suzuki","year":"2018","journal-title":"Bilingualism: Language and Cognition"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103443","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ridd.2019.103443","article-title":"Visual statistical learning and orthographic awareness in Chinese children with and without developmental dyslexia","volume":"92","author":"Tong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Research in Developmental Disabilities"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03192720","article-title":"An automated version of the operation span task","volume":"37","author":"Unsworth","year":"2005","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods"},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"1242","article-title":"Resisting attraction: Individual differences in executive control are associated with subject\u2013verb agreement errors in production","volume":"44","author":"Veenstra","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728903001081","article-title":"Fossilization in steady state L2 grammars: Persistent problems with inflectional morphology","volume":"6","author":"White","year":"2003","journal-title":"Bilingualism: Language and Cognition"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2009.03.003","article-title":"Executive control in language processing","volume":"33","author":"Ye","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1017\/S0272263120000261","article-title":"On the scope of output in SLA: Task modality, salience, L2 grammar noticing, and development","volume":"43","author":"Zalbidea","year":"2021","journal-title":"Studies in Second Language Acquisition"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1171","DOI":"10.1017\/S0142716420000442","article-title":"Does learner cognition count on modality? Working memory and L2 morphosyntactic achievement across oral and written tasks","volume":"41","author":"Zalbidea","year":"2020","journal-title":"Applied Psycholinguistics"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1017\/S0142716421000023","article-title":"The role of modality and awareness in language learning","volume":"42","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Applied Psycholinguistics"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroling.2025.101286","article-title":"Attention to L2 morpho-syntactic form across visual and aural modalities and the modulation of working memory: ERP evidence","volume":"76","author":"Zhuang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Neurolinguistics"}],"container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/16\/8\/1452\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,23]],"date-time":"2026-08-23T04:13:17Z","timestamp":1787458397000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/16\/8\/1452"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]},"references-count":64,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]}},"alternative-id":["bs16081452"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bs16081452","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-328X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-328X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]]}}}