{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T10:37:27Z","timestamp":1793097447586,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787702400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787702400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Major Project of the Key Research of Philosophy and Social Sciences, Ministry of Education, China","award":["20JZD054"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20JZD054"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Behav. Sci.","Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The social identity of migrant children is not merely a demographic label but is actively constructed and constrained by institutional structures. In China, a rapidly growing migrant population faces stringent institutional barriers, namely cross-regional enrollment policies with restrictive eligibility conditions, which exclude migrant children from local high school education. This study investigates how these structural factors shape the educational decisions and, consequently, the social identity formation of migrant children. Using data from the China Migrants Dynamic Survey and a cohort-based difference-in-differences (DID) approach, we employ an innovative strategy to identify students\u2019 high school enrollment locations by leveraging information on migration timing and birth cohorts. Our findings reveal that strict institutional barriers significantly reduce the likelihood of high school attendance in destination areas, forcing families into a critical trade-off between children\u2019s educational opportunities and family co-residence, which serves as a key site where migrant identity is negotiated. Residence requirements and school-type restrictions emerge as the most binding constraints. Importantly, these policies reinforce the role of household economic capital in accessing education while only partially mitigating disparities linked to cultural capital, suggesting a stratified reproduction of migrant social identities. Mechanism analysis indicates that early co-migration of children serves as a key behavioral channel, illustrating how structural barriers reshape family strategies. Ultimately, this study demonstrates that the educational decisions of migrant families are strongly constrained by institutional arrangements, which in turn shape the salience, meaning, and developmental trajectory of their migrant social identity. Reducing access thresholds and providing more flexible pathways are essential for fostering more equitable identity outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs16091488","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]],"date-time":"2026-08-26T09:05:46Z","timestamp":1787735146000},"page":"1488","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Institutional Barriers, Educational Decisions, and the Forging of Migrant Social Identity: Evidence from China\u2019s Cross-Regional Enrollment Policies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Chen","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Business School, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Qiao","family":"Wen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Business School, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Xu","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Education Development Research Center, Beijing Academy of Educational Sciences, Beijing 100036, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"67","article-title":"Peers, neighborhoods, and immigrant student achievement: Evidence from a placement policy","volume":"3","author":"Edin","year":"2011","journal-title":"American Economic Journal: Applied Economics"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.53761\/1.20.6.19","article-title":"Avoiding stuck places: University educators\u2019 views on supporting migrant and refugee students with transitioning through and out of higher education","volume":"20","author":"Baker","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"5","article-title":"Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation","volume":"46","author":"Berry","year":"1997","journal-title":"Applied Psychology"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bo, X., and Wang, Y. (2025). Family strategies for rural-to-urban migrant children under the points-based admission policy in China. Sustainability, 17, (2).","DOI":"10.3390\/su17020570"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1007\/s12134-024-01116-1","article-title":"Unfamiliarities, uncertainties, and ambivalent long-term intentions: Conceptualizing international student-migrant settlement and integration","volume":"25","author":"Brunner","year":"2024","journal-title":"Journal of International Migration and Integration"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1728-4457.2010.00333.x","article-title":"The household registration system and migrant labor in China: Notes on a debate","volume":"36","author":"Chan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Population and Development Review"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106415","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actpsy.2026.106415","article-title":"Stay or leave: The immigration high school entrance examination policy and parental intention for migrant children\u2019s education-driven return migration in China","volume":"264","author":"Chen","year":"2026","journal-title":"Acta Psychologica"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3393","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.20191414","article-title":"Arrival of young talent: The send-down movement and rural education in China","volume":"110","author":"Chen","year":"2020a","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"168","article-title":"Research on the education of migrant children in China: A review of the literature","volume":"14","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Frontiers of Economics in China"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jce.2019.10.006","article-title":"The effect of primary school type on the high school opportunities of migrant children in China","volume":"48","author":"Chen","year":"2020b","journal-title":"Journal of Comparative Economics"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"3","article-title":"Admission policy, education opportunity, and human capital accumulation: Evidence from high school entrance exam policy for migrant children","volume":"11","author":"Chen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Labor Economics Research"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire, Multilingual Matters.","DOI":"10.21832\/9781853596773"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21582440241269979","DOI":"10.1177\/21582440241269979","article-title":"Practices and barriers to promoting educational equity for migrant children in China from the perspective of a local government","volume":"14","author":"Deng","year":"2024","journal-title":"SAGE Open"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1177\/00131245251345803","article-title":"Capitals and educational expectations among chinese migrant children: The moderating roles of high school entrance examination policies","volume":"57","author":"Ding","year":"2025","journal-title":"Education and Urban Society"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.3102\/0013189X16683398","article-title":"Refugee education: The crossroads of globalization","volume":"45","year":"2016","journal-title":"Educational Researcher"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.91.4.795","article-title":"Schooling and labor market consequences of school construction in Indonesia: Evidence from an unusual policy experiment","volume":"91","author":"Duflo","year":"2001","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"General Office of the State Council (2026, May 01). Notice on forwarding the opinions of the Ministry of Education and other departments on ensuring that migrant workers\u2019 accompanying children can take entrance examinations locally after completing compulsory education, Available online: https:\/\/www.gov.cn\/zhengce\/zhengceku\/2012-08\/31\/content_5374.htm."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.econedurev.2016.03.006","article-title":"Immigrant student performance in math: Does it matter where you come from?","volume":"52","author":"Giannelli","year":"2016","journal-title":"Economics of Education Review"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101022","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rssm.2025.101022","article-title":"The impact of tracking in a stratified education system on idealistic educational aspirations in migrant and native families","volume":"97","author":"Gomensoro","year":"2025","journal-title":"Research in Social Stratification and Mobility"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1086\/705540","article-title":"Growing up in (and out of) Shenzhen: The longer-term impacts of rural\u2013urban migration on education and labor market entry","volume":"83","author":"Goodburn","year":"2020","journal-title":"The China Journal"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hung, J. (2022). Hukou system influencing the structural, institutional inequalities in China: The multifaceted disadvantages rural hukou holders face. Social Sciences, 11, (5).","DOI":"10.3390\/socsci11050194"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaukko, M., Alisaari, J., Heikkola, L. M., and Sarnis, V. (2022). Migrant-background student experiences of facing and overcoming difficulties in Finnish comprehensive schools. Education Sciences, 12, (7).","DOI":"10.3390\/educsci12070450"},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"162","article-title":"The status of high school education for migrant children in China and the impact of entrance examination policies","volume":"21","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Education"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102005","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asieco.2025.102005","article-title":"Senior high school enrollment of migrant children in China: The role of relocation","volume":"100","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Asian Economics"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"34","article-title":"When researchers in teacher education and training other: Social justice and the \u201cmigrant student\u201d in an EU\u2013Finland project","volume":"60","author":"Lukala","year":"2026","journal-title":"McGill Journal of Education"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103268","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijedudev.2025.103268","article-title":"The educational inequality faced by Chinese rural migrant children in an urban public school","volume":"114","author":"Ma","year":"2025","journal-title":"International Journal of Educational Development"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"15","article-title":"Resilience among immigrant youth: The role of school, family, and peers","volume":"23","year":"2018","journal-title":"European Psychologist"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"OECD (2018). The resilience of students with an immigrant background: Factors that shape well-being, OECD Publishing."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1747-7379.2007.00062.x","article-title":"Neighborhood and school factors in the school performance of immigrants\u2019 children","volume":"41","author":"Pong","year":"2007","journal-title":"International Migration Review"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1177\/0002716293530001006","article-title":"The new second generation: Segmented assimilation and its variants","volume":"530","author":"Portes","year":"1993","journal-title":"The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.2307\/2112784","article-title":"Maximally maintained inequality: Expansion, reform, and opportunity in Irish education, 1921\u20131975","volume":"66","author":"Raftery","year":"1993","journal-title":"Sociology of Education"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1007\/s00148-006-0102-y","article-title":"Immigrants\u2019 educational disadvantage: An examination across ten countries and three surveys","volume":"20","author":"Schnepf","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Population Economics"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1007\/s10734-024-01318-7","article-title":"Removing institutional barriers or reframing inequality: Effects of China\u2019s college entrance exam reform on inequality in internal migrant students\u2019 higher education attainment","volume":"90","author":"Song","year":"2025","journal-title":"Higher Education"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21582440251357247","DOI":"10.1177\/21582440251357247","article-title":"Between a rock and a hard place: The educational dilemma of migrant children in China","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"SAGE Open"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s12564-015-9408-3","article-title":"Local adaptation of central policies: The policymaking and implementation of compulsory education for migrant children in China","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Asia Pacific Education Review"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101995","DOI":"10.1016\/j.asieco.2025.101995","article-title":"When education policy drives migration: The impact of reform allowing migrants to take the local \u201cGaokao\u201d on children\u2019s migration","volume":"100","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Journal of Asian Economics"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1941","DOI":"10.1111\/rsp3.12680","article-title":"Social justice and migrant children: Exploring the design and implementation of education policies for migrant children in China","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Regional Science Policy & Practice"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.2753\/CED1061-1932430505","article-title":"The household registration system, education system, and inequalities in education for migrant children","volume":"43","author":"Wei","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chinese Education & Society"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssresearch.2015.05.007","article-title":"Population migration and children\u2019s school enrollments in China, 1990\u20132005","volume":"53","author":"Wu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Social Science Research"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1080\/21620555.2021.2019007","article-title":"Separate and unequal: Hukou, school segregation, and educational inequality in urban China","volume":"54","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Chinese Sociological Review"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1017\/S0305741019000742","article-title":"The discursive politics of education policy in China: Educating migrant children","volume":"241","author":"Yu","year":"2020","journal-title":"The China Quarterly"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, X., Zhang, Y., and Jiang, W. (2022). Internal migration and depression among junior high school students in China: A comparison between migrant and left-behind children. Frontiers in Psychology, 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.811617"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.1177\/0020872817725134","article-title":"Hukou system effects on migrant children\u2019s education in China: Learning from past disparities","volume":"60","author":"Zhou","year":"2017","journal-title":"International Social Work"},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"106","article-title":"Institutional restrictions on insufficient household consumption of migrants in destination cities: Evidence from high-school entrance exam policy for migrant children in large cities","volume":"49","author":"Zou","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Finance and Economics"}],"updated-by":[{"DOI":"10.3390\/bs16111967","type":"correction","label":"Correction","source":"publisher","updated":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1792627200000}}],"container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/16\/9\/1488\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,27]],"date-time":"2026-10-27T10:31:07Z","timestamp":1793097067000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/16\/9\/1488"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["bs16091488"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bs16091488","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-328X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-328X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,26]]}}}