{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T05:19:22Z","timestamp":1788326362975,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]],"date-time":"2026-08-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788134400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002701","name":"Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002701","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003725","name":"National Research Foundation of Korea","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["NRF-2023S1A5B5A17087516"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2023S1A5B5A17087516"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003725","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["NRF-2023S1A5B5A17087516"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["NRF-2023S1A5B5A17087516"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/013aysd81","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Behav. Sci.","Behavioral Sciences"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study aimed to investigate the causes of anger experienced by coaches and to examine the relationships between these causes and different forms of anger expression. A mixed-methods design was employed. First, in-depth interviews were conducted with 10 sports coaches to identify the antecedents of coaches\u2019 anger. Based on these findings, a pilot study involving 44 sports coaches was conducted to develop a questionnaire assessing the causes of coaches\u2019 anger. Subsequently, a quantitative survey was administered to 267 coaches to examine the associations between the causes of anger and anger expression. The results indicated that the primary causes of coaches\u2019 anger were Athletes\u2019 Attitudes, External Circumstances, and Competition Situations. Compared with individual-sport coaches, team-sport coaches were more likely to perceive Athletes\u2019 Attitudes and Competition Situations as major causes of anger. The results of the exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) structural model indicated that Competition Situations was negatively associated with outward expression of anger (Anger-Out) but positively associated with active self-regulation (Anger-Control) and internal suppression of anger (Anger-In). External Circumstances was positively associated with Anger-Control, whereas Athletes\u2019 Attitudes was primarily associated with Anger-In. These findings suggest that the relationships among Anger-Out, Anger-In, and Anger-Control vary depending on the underlying causes of anger. Overall, the findings indicate that coaches\u2019 anger is not merely a matter of individual disposition but an emotional response shaped by the complex interplay among coach\u2013athlete relationships, competitive situations, and external factors within the sport environment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/bs16091532","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,1]],"date-time":"2026-09-01T01:05:26Z","timestamp":1788224726000},"page":"1532","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Why Do Coaches Get Angry? Exploring the Relationship Between Causes of Anger and Anger Expression Styles"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-0220-7960","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Oksook","family":"Choi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sport Science, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Seyun","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Sport Science, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Geumran","family":"Seo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Educational Science, Jeju National University, Jeju 63243, Republic of Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1123\/jsep.2017-0179","article-title":"The effects of prosocial and antisocial behaviors on emotion, attention, and performance during a competitive basketball task","volume":"40","author":"Kavussanu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Parrott, W. G. (2001). Studies on anger and aggression: Implications for theories of emotion. Emotions in social psychology: Essential readings, Psychology Press."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.1037\/0021-9010.91.5.1053","article-title":"Episodic processes in emotional labor: Perceptions of affective delivery and regulation strategies","volume":"91","author":"Beal","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Psychology"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/S0005-7967(01)00103-6","article-title":"Prisoners of hate","volume":"40","author":"Beck","year":"2002","journal-title":"Behaviour Research and Therapy"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"671","article-title":"An ethnographic study on occupation culture and structural realities of athletic team coach","volume":"20","author":"Bing","year":"2011","journal-title":"The Korea Journal of Sports Science"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1235","DOI":"10.24985\/kjss.2010.21.2.1235","article-title":"The relationship between perfectionism, stress coping, and anger expression of athletes","volume":"21","author":"Cho","year":"2010","journal-title":"Korean Journal of Sport Science"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.23949\/kjpe.2019.07.58.4.38","article-title":"The relationship between perceived coach-athlete relationship, sport anger, and aggressive behavior in adolescent athletes","volume":"58","author":"Choi","year":"2019","journal-title":"The Korean Journal of Physical Education"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.15831\/JKSSPE.2020.25.1.143","article-title":"The relationship among high school taekwondo leaders controlling coaching behavior and burnout and player satisfaction","volume":"25","author":"Choi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Korean Society for the Study of Physical Education"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"53","article-title":"Development of the Korean state-trait anger expression inventory","volume":"3","author":"Chon","year":"1996","journal-title":"Journal of Rehabilitation Psychology"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"18","article-title":"Korean adaptation of the Korean State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI-K): The case of college students","volume":"3","author":"Chon","year":"1998","journal-title":"Korean Journal of Health Psychology"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"181","article-title":"The relationship between leadership behavior and organizational culture, organizational commitment in sports team","volume":"43","author":"Chung","year":"2004","journal-title":"The Korean Journal of Physical Education"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"7","article-title":"Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis","volume":"10","author":"Costello","year":"2005","journal-title":"Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1260\/174795409789623892","article-title":"An integrative definition of coaching effectiveness and expertise","volume":"4","author":"Gilbert","year":"2009","journal-title":"International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Creswell, J. W., and Plano Clark, V. L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research, SAGE Publications. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Crocker, L., and Algina, J. (1986). Introduction to classical and modern test theory, Holt, Rinehart and Winston."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Davis, P. A., and Davis, L. (2016). Emotions and emotion regulation in coaching. The psychology of effective coaching and management, Nova Science Publishers."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1080\/02699939208411068","article-title":"An argument for basic emotions","volume":"6","author":"Ekman","year":"1992","journal-title":"Cognition and Emotion"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1123\/tsp.2014-0027","article-title":"Cohesion and performance for female and male sport teams","volume":"29","author":"Eys","year":"2015","journal-title":"The Sport Psychologist"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1080\/02640410903406208","article-title":"Psychological stress in sports coaches: A review of concepts, research, and practice","volume":"28","author":"Fletcher","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Sports Sciences"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"89","article-title":"Believing in \u201cus\u201d: Exploring leaders\u2019 capacity to enhance team confidence and performance by building a sense of shared social identity","volume":"21","author":"Fransen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101763","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2020.101763","article-title":"The impact of identity leadership on team functioning and well-being in team sport: Is psychological safety the missing link?","volume":"51","author":"Fransen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychology of Sport and Exercise"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1123\/tsp.21.1.38","article-title":"College coaches\u2019 experiences with stress\u2014\u201cProblem solvers\u201d have problems, too","volume":"21","author":"Frey","year":"2007","journal-title":"The Sport Psychologist"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1186\/s40798-023-00655-8","article-title":"The mental health of elite-level coaches: A systematic scoping review","volume":"10","author":"Frost","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sports Medicine\u2014Open"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Ashkanasy, N. M., Hartel, C. E. J., and Zerbe, W. J. (2002). Grinning, frowning, and emotionless: Agent perceptions of power and their effect on felt and displayed emotions in influence attempts. Managing emotions in the workplace, Routledge."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.15842\/kjcp.2009.28.1.006","article-title":"The mediating effect of cognitive coping strategies on the relationships between perfectionism and anger expression","volume":"28","author":"Goh","year":"2009","journal-title":"Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1037\/spy0000063","article-title":"Parenting in sport","volume":"5","author":"Harwood","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1007\/s11031-014-9404-7","article-title":"Perfectionism and emotion regulation in coaches: A test of the 2\u00d72 model of dispositional perfectionism","volume":"38","author":"Hill","year":"2014","journal-title":"Motivation and Emotion"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e279","DOI":"10.1111\/sms.12075","article-title":"Psychophysiological and stress responses to competition in team sport coaches: An exploratory study","volume":"23","author":"Hudson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kang, S., and Lee, S. (2025). A systematic review of psychological difficulties among elite sports coaches. Frontiers in Psychology, 16.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2025.1666035"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"201","article-title":"Athletic club leader\u2019s Life and Education","volume":"52","author":"Kang","year":"2013","journal-title":"The Korean Journal of Physical Education"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psychsport.2008.12.003","article-title":"A qualitative investigation exploring the motivational climate in early career sports participants: Coach, parent and peer influences on sport motivation","volume":"10","author":"Keegan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychology of Sport and Exercise"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1080\/10413200.2011.608413","article-title":"Parents\u2019 reflections on their child\u2019s experiences of emotionally abusive coaching practices","volume":"24","author":"Kerr","year":"2012","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Sport Psychology"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"269","article-title":"Mediating effects of trait anger and cognitive appraisal resources on the relationship between children\u2019s anger-inducing events and anger-out","volume":"5","author":"Kim","year":"2008","journal-title":"The Korean Journal of School Psychology"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1550","DOI":"10.1177\/0146167204271176","article-title":"Every cloud has a silver lining: Interpersonal and individual differences determinants of anger-related behaviors","volume":"30","author":"Kuppens","year":"2004","journal-title":"Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Lee, A. R. (2013). Anger situation and type of snger control in tennis competition. [Master\u2019s thesis, Incheon National University Graduate School of Education]."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.47684\/jcd.2022.11.24.5.118","article-title":"Exploring the changes in the burnouts experienced by baseball coaches each season","volume":"24","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Coaching Development"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"95","article-title":"The relationship between organization culture, job stress, job satisfaction and turnover intention in elite sports leaders","volume":"13","author":"Lee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Coaching Development"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.24985\/kjss.2019.30.1.34","article-title":"Relationships among burnout, presenteeism, and coaching achievement in athlete coaches","volume":"30","author":"Lee","year":"2019","journal-title":"Korean Journal of Sport Science"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"25","article-title":"Multiple mediating effects of passion and job engagement in coach burnout and coach-athlete relationship","volume":"28","author":"Lee","year":"2017a","journal-title":"Korean Journal of Sport Psychology"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"63","article-title":"Predicting coach-athlete relationship through emotional labor and burnout in athlete coaches","volume":"28","author":"Lee","year":"2017b","journal-title":"Korean Journal of Sport Psychology"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.24230\/kjiop.v27i2.339-366","article-title":"The impact of superior\u2019s anger out on employees\u2019 creative process engagement: Mediating effects of negative mood and moderating effects of personal identification with the leader","volume":"27","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Korean Journal of Industrial and Organizational Psychology"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Lee, S. M. (2016). The structural relationship among athlete\u2019s personality, cognitive emotion regulation, and anger expression. [Doctoral dissertation, Dongduk Women\u2019s University Graduate School]."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.23949\/kjpe.2020.1.59.1.9","article-title":"The Experiences of the athlete\u2019s anger","volume":"59","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"The Korean Journal of Physical Education"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.4040\/jkan.2006.36.5.821","article-title":"Association of anger expression patterns and health status in health care workers","volume":"36","author":"Lee","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"123","article-title":"The mediating effect of emotional intelligence on the relationship between perceived racket sports players coach\u2019s autonomy support and behavioral anger","volume":"83","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Sport and Leisure Studies"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1260\/1747-9541.10.2-3.561","article-title":"Emotional labor in sports coaching: Development of a model","volume":"10","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.52.1.397","article-title":"Job burnout","volume":"52","author":"Maslach","year":"2001","journal-title":"Annual Review of Psychology"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tenenbaum, G., and Eklund, R. C. (2020). Modern factor analytic techniques: Bifactor models, exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM), and Bifactor-ESEM. Handbook of Sport Psychology, Wiley. [4th ed.].","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119568124"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Obmi\u0144ski, Z., Supi\u0144ski, J., Rydzik, \u0141., Cynarski, W. J., Ozimek, M., Borysiuk, Z., B\u0142ach, W., and Ambro\u017cy, T. (2022). Stress responses to one-day athletic tournament in sport coaches: A pilot study. Biology, 11, (6).","DOI":"10.3390\/biology11060828"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1080\/10413201003760968","article-title":"Stress and coping: A study of world class coaches","volume":"22","author":"Olusoga","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Applied Sport Psychology"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"242","article-title":"Background anger in youth sport: A perfect storm?","volume":"32","author":"Omli","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Sport Behavior"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"77","article-title":"Pressure, stress, and coping: Exploring the professional demands of NCAA Division I coaching","volume":"45","author":"Powell","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Sport Behavior"},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"79","article-title":"The effects of the anger control programs for middle-school students","volume":"3","author":"Ryoo","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Arts Psychotherapy"},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Seo, S. G. (2004). Cognitive factors related to anger and their therapeutic implications. [Doctoral dissertation, Seoul National University Graduate School]."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"521","article-title":"Development and validation study of the anger-out\/anger-in attitude scale","volume":"23","author":"Seo","year":"2004","journal-title":"Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.24985\/kjss.2016.27.4.997","article-title":"Type and factor structure of behavioral anger response in sport competition","volume":"27","author":"Seong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Korean Journal of Sport Science"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1177\/0730888403260734","article-title":"The effects of occupational characteristics on the experience and expression of anger in the workplace","volume":"31","author":"Sloan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Work and Occupations"},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Spielberger, C. D. (1999). Professional manual for the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2 (STAXI-2), Psychological Assessment Resources."},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Spielberger, C. D., and Rickman, R. L. (1988). Assessment of state and trait anxiety, Taylor & Francis."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1123\/tsp.22.1.38","article-title":"A qualitative exploration of psychological-skills use in coaches","volume":"22","author":"Thelwell","year":"2008a","journal-title":"The Sport Psychologist"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1080\/02640410801885933","article-title":"Stressors in elite sport: A coach perspective","volume":"26","author":"Thelwell","year":"2008b","journal-title":"Journal of Sports Sciences"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paid.2006.01.007","article-title":"Multidimensional individual differences in anger-related behaviors","volume":"41","author":"Ceulemans","year":"2006","journal-title":"Personality and Individual Differences"},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"1","article-title":"Emotional games: How coaches\u2019 emotional expressions shape players\u2019 emotions, inferences, and team performance","volume":"41","author":"Cheshin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychology of Sport and Exercise"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1123\/jsep.31.2.169","article-title":"Emotions and sport performance: An exploration of happiness, hope, and anger","volume":"31","author":"Woodman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1002\/erv.418","article-title":"Silencing the self and suppressed anger: Relationship to eating disorder symptoms in adolescent females","volume":"10","author":"Zaitsoff","year":"2002","journal-title":"European Eating Disorders Review"}],"container-title":["Behavioral Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/16\/9\/1532\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,2]],"date-time":"2026-09-02T04:27:55Z","timestamp":1788323275000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-328X\/16\/9\/1532"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]]},"references-count":65,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["bs16091532"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/bs16091532","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-328X"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-328X","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]]}}}